
Class 

Book 

CopyriglitlN?- 



CQFmiGHT DEPOSm 




George Washington, from his first portrait, painted by Charles Willson Peale 
at Mount Vernon in 1772. Washington was then forty years old, and is repre- 
sented as a colonel of the colonial troops of Virginia. Washington was tall and 
strong; and, at the opening of the Revolution, three years later, he was in the prime 
of life. The original portrait is now at Washington and Lee University. 



BRIEF HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



BY 

MATTHEW PAGE ANDREWS, M.A, 



151 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 25 BLACK-AND- 
WHITE MAPS IN THE TEXT, ALSO FRONTIS- 
PIECE AND TWO MAPS IN FULL COLOR 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



^ 



SEP 3Q19I6 



Eledrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



?:r/liisi 



"^^ ^ 



v3 
as 

Q 



TO THE MEMORY OF MY MOTHER 
WHO GUIDED MY FIRST STEPS IN 
THE READING OF HISTORY 



PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD 

If special merits be found in this volume, they are 
derived directly from the author's experience in 
secondary school work, and from his knowledge of 
the problems of both teacher and pupil. The author 
never for one moment lost sight of his readers. In 
providing for their special needs he has written and 
rewritten each part with the earnest purpose of 
making the subject clear to the average pupil and of 
enlisting the child's genuine interest in the history 
of the United States. 

Mr. Andrews' enthusiasm for the subject of his- 
tory and his originality and clearness in presenting it 
secured for him the hearty cooperation not only of a 
number of secondary school teachers, but also of 
many noted historians and of English scholars, who 
offered the benefit of their suggestions and the en- 
couragement of their approval. 

The attention which the author has given to ex- 
pression and style; his appreciation of the ''element 
of human interest"; his courage in throwing out of 
the main body of the narrative' ' stock" but non-essen- 
tial matter ; his recognition of the prime value of the 
story element and of the importance of introducing, 
not obtrusively or abstrusely, but attractively, clear- 
cut ideas of manners and customs — all these have 
contributed in producing a volume agreeable to read 
and easy to teach. 

V 



BY WAY OF EXPLANATION 

Every writer of history wlio lias any ambition to 
please his readers meets in every chapter problems 
which would bring despair to the novelist. The 
latter adapts his narrative and limits his characters 
and scenes to suit his plot. In other words, he leads 
his story. The historian, on the other hand, has no 
choice in these things. His story leads him. Never- 
theless, even though the first and greatest allegiance 
of the historian is to the recital of facts, he may 
profitably exercise every art of the rhetorician and 
the novelist in order to approximate, at least, the 
latter 's primary advantage of position. The author 
of a school history may gather and present all the 
essential facts, and yet he may be far from securing 
an arrangement of these facts which offers the 
greatest possible adherence to continuity, a basic law 
of composition. 

It is easy to ask for an American history adapted 
to the needs of the child; but it is not possible to 
prepare such a history unless we are willing to revise 
and rewrite a score of times, perhaps, that which we 
know is good English for ordinary purposes, in order 
to express it in English carefully adapted to an 
extraordinary purpose. Such an extraordinary pur- 
pose is the preparation of a narrative of limited 
extent which must cover several hundred years of the 
growth of a great people, hundreds of individual 
characters, explanations of political divisions and 



viii BY WAY OF EXPLANATION 

sectional disputes, and descriptions of customs in 
various epochs ; not only is all this undertaken in a 
school history of the United States, but its expression 
should he such as to be readily understood by a child, 
and the entire subject should be presented in a 
manner to enlist his interest. 

The investigations of specialists working upon 
different phases of United States history have, in the 
past few years, amazingly modified previous inter- 
pretations. For a long time, intelligent readers have 
been amused at the conception of Washington pre- 
sented by Parson Weems, a conception which was 
once widely taught and accepted as faithful biog- 
raphy; yet it is not an exaggeration to say that 
some of the biographies and historical interpreta- 
tions which appeared even as recently as twenty or 
ten years ago are now also regarded as misleading, 
although much less so, perhaps, than the Weems esti- 
mate of Washington. A new sense of national 
perspective is revealed to us in recent publications 
concerning Southern and Western States which have 
hitherto failed to give their records well-merited 
attention. A school history, especially, should 
reckon with this advance in thought and interpreta- 
tion, and free itself from the taint of sectional 
misconception. 

In historical narrative the absence of interest is 
not infrequently due to the presence of discursive 
material ; on the other hand, the proper subordina- 
tion of this discursive matter as frequently enhances 
the interest of the subject. It is true that such a 



BY WAY OF EXPLANATION ix 

process of selection imposes a tenfold burden upon 
the author ; but it shortens the book, reduces its cost, 
encourages the pupil, and helps the teacher, im- 
mensely improving the latter 's chances of becoming 
an object of interest to the class. This volume is 
based on class-room experience, and it is offered by a 
secondary school teacher to other teachers in the 
belief that it will help his fellow-workers to make the 
subject of United States history attractive to the 
young Americans who must look to them for guid- 
ance in exploring the past and for training with a 
view to future citizenship. 

The author is indebted to those historians who 
have made suggestions or criticisms within the fields 
of American history wherein they have specialized. 
He is also grateful to experienced teachers and to 
critics of English style who have helped to make 
expression clearer and the diction as simple and 
direct as possible. For able, constructive criticism 
and painstaking proofreading, the author is espe- 
cially indebted to Dr. Allen Kerr Bond, Mr. Alexander 
L. Tinsley, and Mr. Henry Fletcher Powell. Others 
who have read the manuscript, either wholly or in 
part, are Mr. Gamaliel Bradford, Dr. Henry E. 
Shepherd, Mr. William Leigh, Jr., Mr. R. D. W. 
Connor, Mr. J. E. Dandridge Murdaugh, Mr. James 
E. Hancock, Dr. Francis Trevelyan Miller, officials 
of departments of the United States Government at 
Washington, and members of State Historical Socie- 
ties, with whom the author was in correspondence 
during the preparation of this work. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Discovery of the New World 1 

II. Exploration and First Settlement 13 

III. Beginnings of English Colonization in New England 37 

IV. Early History of Middle and Southern Colonies; 

THE Story of Virginia and New England Continued 

TO Period of Struggle with New France 53 

V. I. Struggle Between Great Britain and France for 
THE Control of North America: II. Life in Colonial 

Times 87 

VI. Controversy Between the Colonies and the Mother 

Country to the Declaration of Independence .... 109 
VII. The Revolution — From the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence TO the Treaty of Peace 130 

VIII. The Confederation of States After the Revolution 
and the Formation of a Stronger Union, to Close 

OF Federalist Period 154 

IX. Democratic-Republican Period, to the Close of 

Second War with Great Britain 181 

X. Democratic-Republican Period, from Close of War 

OF 1812 TO Beginning of Jacksonian Democracy . . . 204 
XI. From 1837 to 1861 — Period of Political Strife on 

Sectional Lines 227 

XII. From 1861 to 1876 — Period of Division and Reunion. . 273 
XIII. From the Close of the Reconstruction Period to 

Recent Times 330 

xi 



xu 



CONTENTS 



APPENDIX A. The Indians of North America i 

APPENDIX B. The Declaration of Independence in Con- 
gress, July 4, 1776 v 

APPENDIX C. The Constitution of the United States .... x 

Amendments to the Constitution xxiii 

APPENDIX D. Table of the Presidents xxix 

APPENDIX E. Table of States and Territories xxx 

Index 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

George Washington Frontispiece 

Memorial to Christopher Columbus, Washington, D.C 3 

Picture of Sea Serpents (taken from an old print) 4 

The Ships of Columbus 5 

John Cabot 8 

Ehzabeth R (Regina) 13 

Sir Walter Raleigh 16 

A Reproduction of One of Governor John White's Drawings Made 

on Roanoke Island in 1585 17 

Illustration Showing Contrast between Sailing Vessels which 

Brought Over the First Colonists to Jamestown and the Titanic 20 

Signature of Captain John Smith 23 

Signature of George Percy 24 

Statue of Pocahontas 25 

Reproduction of a Page of the Proceedings of the First Represent- 
ative Assembly in America, Held at Jamestown, 1619 29 

Autograph of William Bradford '38 

Autograph of William Brewster 39 

Autograph of Margaret, wife of Governor John Winthrop 43 

Title-page of the First Book Published in the English Colonies ... 47 

Old Harvard College 50 

Dutch Costumes of New Netherlands 53 

New Amsterdam About 1630-'35; Compare with the Present 

''Sky-hne" of New York • 55 

Governor Peter Stuyvesant tearing up the British Summons to 

Surrender New Amsterdam in 1664 56 

George Calvert 59 

William Penn 64 

Penn's Treaty with the Indians 65 

General James Oglethorpe 72 

Tablet Marking the Site of the Fort at Frederica 74 

The "Aged Chief" Opechancanough Being Borne in a Litter to the 

Last Great Massacre of the White Settlers in Virginia, 1644 . . 77 

Virginia Costumes of Colonial Times 79 

Puritan Costumes of Colonial Days 80 

Attack on Brookfield, Massachusetts 82 

Signature of Margaret Brent 84 

Costumes of French Settlers in America 88 

Defeat of Major-General Edward Braddock 94 

xiii 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

The Heights of Abraham 96 

John Quincy, Dressed in the Costume Worn by a Child of Colonial 

New England 101 

Picture of Daniel Ravenel as a Child 105 

Colonial Counterpane, Made by Rebecca Rogers 110 

Faneuil Hall 113 

James Otis 115 

Patrick Henry 117 

The Boston Tea Party 118 

Tablet Erected to Commemorate the "Ladies' Tea Party" 120 

American Soldier in the Uniform of the Continental Army 122 

Samuel Adams 124 

Henry Laurens 125 

Sergeant Jasper Replacing the Flag at Fort Moultrie 127 

Abigail Adams 128 

The Brooklyn Battle Monument 131 

Washington's Army Crossing the Delaware 134 

Winter Quarters at Valley Forge 136 

Marquis de Lafayette 137 

Baron von Steuben '138 

John Paul Jones 143 

Anthony Wayne 144 

Daniel Morgan 147 

General Nathanael Greene 148 

Statue of Benjamin FrankUn 155 

Alexander Hamilton 158 

Wilham and Mary College 161 

Daniel Boone's Fort 167 

John Adams 170 

Martha Washington 174 

A Stage Coach 176 

Some Pieces of Colonial China Used by Benjamin Franklin 179 

Statue of Thomas Jefferson 182 

James Monroe and Robert Livingston Signing Treaty by Which 

Louisiana Was Ceded to the United States 183 

Meriwether Lewis, l)y Saint Memin 185 

Stephen Decatur, of the American Navy, Shooting a Tripolitan in 

an Attack upon Pirate Gunboats in the Harbor of Tripoli, 

August 3, 1804 187 

James Madison 189 

Commodore Ohver H. Perry on Lake Erie, September 10, 1813 . . . 194 

General Samuel Smith 196 

General Andrew Jackson Encouraging the American Troops at the 

Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815 198 



ILLUSTRATIONS xv 

Capture of the Cyane and Levant by the Constitution 201 

Commodore Stephen Decatur 202 

James Monroe 204 

Mississippi Flat-boat . . ' 206 

The Clermont, Fulton's First Steamboat 207 

Mount Vernon 213 

The Savannah 214 

John Quincy Adams 216 

Andrew Jackson 218 

John Marshall 219 

John C. Calhoun 221 

Daniel Webster 223 

Martin Van Buren 227 

An Old Printing Press and Type Case, Said to Have Been Used by 

Benjamin Franklin 228 

William Henry Harrison 230 

John Tyler 231 

Henry Clay 232 

Residence of President Houston, of Texas, 1836 233 

James K. Polk 234 

Battle of Buena Vista 235 

The Battle of Chapultepec 239 

The Ancient Fortress of Chapultepec (from a Recent Photograph") 240 
The United States Senate in the Days of Webster, Clay Calhoun, 

Hayne, and Benton 241 

Chicago in 1832 242 

Zachary Taylor 243 

A Scene in Western Frontier Life 244 

Millard Fillmore 246 

Franklin Pierce 247 

Rock Spring Farm, Kentucky, Where Abraham Lincoln Was Born 249 

Edgar Allan Poe 251 

Nathaniel Hawthorne 252 

James Buchanan 253 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 254 

Margaret Fuller 255 

Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 258 

A Wool Wheel and a Flax-spinning Wheel 261 

The "Best Friend," the First Locomotive Built for the Charleston- 
Hamburg Railroad, in South Carohna 262 

Charles Carroll of Carrollton 263 

Matthew Fontaine Maury 264 

Laying the Atlantic Cable 265 

Statue of Abraham Lincoln 274 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

Jefferson Davis 279 

President Lincoln and His Cabinet Officers 281 

A Battery Directed Against Fort Sumter 286 

George Henrj^ Thomas 294 

Battle Between the Monitor and the Virginia 297 

George B. McClellan 298 

Thomas J. (Stonewall) Jackson 301 

George Gordon Meade 303 

Battle of Gettysburg (by Rothermel) 306 

Gun- and Mortar-boats Attacking Confederate Fortifications on 

the Mississippi River 308 

Nathan B. Forrest 309 

Battle of Chickamauga, Near the Georgia-Tennessee Line 311 

Philip H. Sheridan 313 

The Sinking of the Alabama by the Kearsargc, June 19, 1864 315 

Robert Edward Lee 316 

Andrew Johnson 319 

Ulysses S. Grant 323 

Rutherford B. Hayes 330 

Completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad System 331 

James A. Garfield 332 

Chester A. Arthur , . 333 

Grover Cleveland 334 

Benjamin Harrison 335 

Street Scene in Dawson City, Alaska, at the Close of the Nineteenth 

Century 340 

The Capitol, Washington, D. C 342 

Wilham McKinley 344 

Sky-line of New York City from Governor's Island, the Sight that 

Meets the Immigrant Entering New York Harbor 346 

A Modern Express Train in Service Between New York and 

Chicago 347 

Reclaiming Arid Lands in the West by Reservoirs and Irrigation . . 350 

Theodore Roosevelt 351 

Panama Canal Zone 352 

Col. George W. Goethals, Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal . . . 353 

Steam Shovel at Work on the Panama Canal 354 

Wilham H. Taft * 355 

Blast Furnace and Pig Iron Store-yard at Birmingham, Alabama . . 359 

Woodrow Wilson 361 

Rolling Structural Steel, Pencoyd Iron Works, Philadelphia County 363 

High-power Wireless Station at Gamboa, Canal Zone 366 

Wampum Peace Belt iii 



ILLUSTRATIONS • xvii 

MAPS 

Map of the World 2 

Map Showing the First Voyage of Christopher Columbus and 

the First and Second Voyages of John Cabot 9 

Map of Jamestown and the Neighboring Settlements Prior to the 

Settlement of Maryland and North Carolina 30 

Map of New England 46 

Map Showing the First Settlements in the Middle Colonies 62 

Map Showing Early Settlements in the Southern Colonies 70 

Map Showing the English Colonies Prior to the French and Indian 

Wars 90 

Map Showing the English Colonies and the Spanish Claims After 

the Fall of New France 98 

Map Showing Points of Importance in the New England and 

Middle States Campaigns 133 

The New Jersey Campaign 139 

Map Showing Route Taken by George Rogers Clark in the Cam- 
paign by Which He Secured the Northwest from the British . . 142 
Map Showing Revolutionary Battle-fields in the Southern States. . 146 

Map Showing Campaign Against Cornwallis at Yorktown 149 

Map Showing State Claims Westward to the Mississippi River. . . . 156 
Map Showing Development in the Northwest After the Revolution 166 

Map of the British Campaign Against New Orleans 200 

Map Showing Western Expansion Immediately After the War of 

1812 209 

Map Showing Points of Interest in the War with Mexico 237 

Map Showing the Route of the American Army Under General 

Winfield Scott 238 

Map Showing Area of the States in Secession 278 

Battle-fields of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania 289 

Battle-fields of Kentucky and Tennessee 292 

Map of the Battle of Gettysburg 307 

Sherman's March, Atlanta to Raleigh 312 

Territorial Acquisitions by the United States (Colored). . .opposite 368 
Map Showing Principal Indian Stocks, with Some of the Eastern 

Tribes Which Were Prominently Connected with Early 

Colonial History i i 

Map of United States and Possessions (Colored) opposite xxx 



BRIEF HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

CHAPTER I 

DiSCOVEKY OF THE NeW WoRLD 

Although tliere were people living on tlie West- 
ern Hemisphere long before its discovery by Euro- 
peans, we tliink of American history as having its 
source in Europe, because the Old World nations 
developed the New and made it what it is to-day. 

At the time of the discovery of the New World, the 
people of Europe were making great prog- 
ress in learning and industry and art ; but ideas of the 
the wisest men among them were ignorant 
of some of the things all of us now know. What they 
knew, for instance, of the extent of the world is shown 
in the white portion of the map on page 2. Nearly 
every one believed that the earth was flat and that 
the sky rested on its edges like an overturned bowl. 

There were a few men, however, at this time who 
felt sure tliat the earth could not be flat. Some, like 
Paul Toscanelli, an Italian geographer, views of 
drew charts or maps to show that the earth cofumbW^' 
is round. These charts were carefully ^^^°* 
studied by thoughtful sailors and navigators, like 
Christopher Columbus and John Cabot, who became 
convinced that they were living on a globe and that 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 



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MEMORIAL TO COLUMBUS 



if they were given the chance they conkl prove it by 
sailing around the workl.^ 

In medieval times, the dangers and difficulties of 




Copyright by G. Y. Buck 
Memorial to Christopher Cokimbus, Washington, D. C. Erected in 1912 by The 
Knights of Columbus. Designed by an American sculptor, Lorado Taft. 

navigation in unknown seas were so great that men 
needed strong motives to lead them to risk their lives 

^It is well to recall that Cristoforo Colombo and Giovanni 
Cahoto are the names by which Columbus and Cabot were known 
in Genoa (see map), where they were born about the time of the 
capture of Constantinople (1453). We are not sure of the exact 
date of the birth of Columbus. Cabot was at one time a citizen of 
Venice, but it seems clear that he was born at or near Grenoa. 



4 DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 

and fortunes in sucli enterprises. These motives lay 
chiefly in the desire to secure new routes to carry on 
a profitable trade with India and other countries of 
the East; for the old trade routes to the East (see 
map) had been cut oft' or rendered unsafe by the in- 
Necessity for roads of the Turks, who had over-run Asia 
^oiltes'^to^he Minor and, in 1453, had even captured Con- 
^^^* stantinople. These old routes by land and 

sea had been controlled by Venice and Genoa; but, 
under new conditions, both cities, as well as the rest 
of Europe, faced the necessity of giving up the East- 
ern trade or finding other ways of reaching India. 
While the little group of thinkers which included 
Toscanelli, Columbus, and Cabot were working out 
their theory that the earth is a sphere and that India 
could, therefore, be reached hy sailing in the opposite 
direction^ Dias, a Portuguese sailor serving Prince 
Henry the Navigator, braved the terrors of 

Portuguese 

sail around tlic African coast and rounded the southern 

Africa 

end, now called the Cape of Good Hope. Al- 
though Dias made this voyage in 1-1:86 and showed 
a new way to India, the route was very long and dan- 
gerous. Moreover, the entire distance to India was 
not covered even by the Portuguese until the voyage 
of Vasco da Gama in 11^98. 

Upon learning of the voyage of Dias, Columbus 
set to work with even greater energy to convince 
others that India could be reached by sailing 
westward. About 1473, he had moved to Lisbon and 
married the daughter of a Portuguese sailor. He 
diligently studied the log-book of his father-in-law 




TRIALS OF COLUMBUS 6 

and listened eagerly to the accounts of navigators 
who had sailed farthest to the west and had xnais of 
found floating bits of wood and other things c°i""^^"^- 
which seemed to show that land lay beyond.- The 
more he studied the 
more he believed in his 
theory. When, how- 
ever, he tried to con- 
vince others, he was 
laughed at by men who 
asked him how people 
on the other side of the 

1^ ^^ 111^ -w,^*-*-!^ This picture, taken from an old print, was 

WOrla COUiCl live Wltn designed to represent an incident in the "Sea 

,-,.-,-. ■, of Darkness" at the western edge of the 

tneir neaClS always worW. it was believed that great sea serpents 

' were able to reaeh up and catch sailors high 

downward. Moreover, in the rigging of the ship! it is no wonder, 

therefore, that Columbus had trouble in get- 

he risked imprison- ^^^^ ^^" ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ voyage. 
ment and death in expressing his beliefs ; for, at this 
time, a great many people thought the founders of 
the Christian (Uiurch and the Bible itself taught that 
the earth is flat and hence that it was wrong to teach 
or believe otherwise. 

After many years, during which he suffered in- 
numerable trials and rebuffs, and after he had en- 
deavored, as we are told, to procure help from Genoa, 
Portugal, France and England, Columbus was at last 

^ Cclnmbi-is was himself a eai-togi^aplier, or map-drawer. We 
are told that at school he was especially good at arithmetic and 
map-drawing'. We may imagine how many maps he later drew 
of what he knew in the Old World and what he thought might be 
in the unknown West. His ideas, however, as well as those of 
Toscanelli, led him to imagine that the earth was about one- 
third smaller than it is ; so that he did not make any reckoning for 
the stretch of new continents and for the Pacific Ocean. 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 



successful in gettius: a hearing before King Ferdi- 
First voyage uaud and Queeu Isabella of Spain. Espe- 
of Columbus ^.^ij^, ^^.^g Isabella impressed with his story, 
and in 1492 she gave authority and aid to Columbus 

to procure the vessels 
and crews necessar}^ 
for the voyage. Sail- 
ors, however, fled 
from him in terror 
for fear of being im- 
pressed, and even the 
jails were called upon 
to complete his crew. 
The expedition was at 
last equipped, and 
Columbus set sail 
from the harbor of 
Palos, August 3, 1492, 
with three small ves- 
sels and about one 
THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS huudred men. After 

The Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. The o f r» r\ r* i ■»! O' nf flic* 
largest of these was Columbus' flagship, of leas » ^ U |J |J i ai ^ clL LliC 




than 200 tons burden. 



Islands 



Canary Islands to 
make some necessary repairs to one of the vessels, 
he set out upon the unexplored expanse of western 
waters in search of India. Weeks passed without 
signs of land. The hitherto unchangeable needle of 
the mariner's compass became '^sluggish" and vari- 
able, the ships were becalmed, and for days all seemed 
about to be engulfed in the floating weeds of the great 
^ * Sargasso Sea. " It is small wonder that the fright- 
ened and ignorant sailors were inclined to mutiny, 



DISCOVERY OF LAND 7 

but the faith and determination of Columbus seemed 
never to waver, although in mid-ocean he was per- 
suaded to alter his course from due west and north- 
west more to the southward to follow the flight of 
some passing birds. (See map, p. 10.) 

Early in the morning of October 12, 1492, the 
little fleet came in sight of land now believed to be 
Watling Island, called by Columbus San Salvador. 
Here Columbus landed and, in the name of the King 
and Queen of Spain, claimed possession with cere- 
mony and thanksgiving befitting the triumphant out- 
come of one of the greatest achievements of history. 
Although the simple, wondering natives of j^iscovery of 
the island were unlike any people of whom i^nd 
he had ever heard, Columbus called them Indians, 
because he thought they were inhabitants of the 
(East) Indies, and this is the name by which we have 
ever since known the natives of the Western Hemi- 
sphere. Lured by stories of wealth and neighboring 
lands, Columbus sailed from San Salvador for the 
coasts of Cuba and Hayti. On the latter island 
he built a fort and left some fifty men, the first colony 
of a European nation in the New World. He took on 
board a number of the Indians, and having got to- 
gether a great display of birds, plants, and native 
gold ornaments, returned to Spain in the following 
spring, where the once despised adventurer was 
accorded the highest honors of the kingdom. 

It was now easy to get ships and men for further 
exploration, so that before the end of the year 
Columbus again set out for the Indies with a far 
greater force under his command. At Hayti, he 



8 DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 

learned tliat the Spanisli colonists had repaid the 
kindness of the Indians there with cruel 

other 

voyages; treatment, so that the natives had killed 

beginning or ' 

Spanish them and had laid their forts in ruins. 

Now followed a long and weary search 
for mines of precious metal, — a search that met with 
little success ; and the Spaniards, both those w^itli the 
expedition and those at home, began to complain bit- 
terly that the discoveries were not worth the price 
they had paid for them. Consequently, Columbus re- 
turned to Spain some years later in disfavor. In 
all, from 1492 to 1504, the great discoverer made 
four voyages, the last two resulting in the explora- 
tion of parts of the coast of C'entral and South 
America. He did not, however, touch the shores of 
the northern continent, and died without 
the New knowing he had found a new world, but be- 
lieving that he had reached the Indies and 
the coast of Asia. Nor was the new-found country 
named in honor of its discoverer; but it was called 
America, after Amerigo A^espucci, an Italian naviga- 
tor who had written letters describing the coastline 
and character of the western lands.^ 

During this time John Cabot had been living 
in England, and the news of the first voyage of 
Columbus reached him there. He now proposed 
to Henry VII that he should, in the name of 

* The original letters have been lost, and only more or less 
accurate copies have been preserved. These had wide circula- 
tion in Europe and were read at St, Die, in noi-theastern France, 
by a teacher of g'eoo-raphy named Martin Waldseemiiller, who 
first published the name which came to be applied to the whole 
of the two continents. 



CABOT DISCOVERS NORTH AMERICA 9 

England, make explorations in search of a route to 
India and other Oriental countries. Appar- ^^^^^ ^.^_ 
ently, he was not successful in this effort covers con- 

•^ \ . tinent of 

until it became plain that the treaties which North 

were being arranged between Spain and 

Portugal with the sanction of the Pope were intended 

to exclude every other nation from a share in the 

trade and colonization of the newly 

discovered lands.^ The line of 

boundary set between Spain and 

Portugal ran from north to south, 

not far from the middle of the 

Atlantic Ocean; all lands to the 

east of this line were to belong 

to Portugal, while those to the west 

were to become the possession of 

Spain. Henry VII now saw the 

necessity of acting in the interest eovetd" t£^contTn'e°n?'of 

of England and gave authority Kfiatcr^c;?Ve%fafJs 

j_ r^ -I 1 1 1 • i-i X of Spain and Portugal, he 

to Cabot and his three sons to laid the foundation for the 

., . ,, . -, settlement of the English 

sail to all countries and seas CoioniesintheNewWorid. 
of the East and of the West and of the North 
under our banners and ensigns." In May, 1497, 
Cabot, in command of a single small vessel, set out 
from Bristol. After a comparatively brief voyage, 
he came in sight of land on the coast of what is now 
Labrador. Here he went on shore, and by this act 
became the first representative of European nations 
to set foot upon the coast of North America; and his 
discovery of this continent is of special importance 

* The teacher may here explain the temporal power of the 
Popes in medieval times. 




Avery's History 

JOHN CABOT 



10 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 



because it gave England a definite claim to territory 
in the New World, and set the minds of Englishmen 
upon making homes there. This led eventually to 
the establishment of those thirteen colonies which be- 
came, in less than three hundred years, the United 
States of Amekica. 




Map showing the first voyage of Christopher Columbus and the first and second 
voyages of John Cabot. The " ? " at the southernmost point of Cabot's second 
voyage shows that we do not know the exact extent of that voyage. 

Points of Interest ; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion ^ 

Some of the boys and girls who have read this first chapter 

have also read stories of Leif Ericson and the Norsemen and 

'It is not intended that these notes should be in the least 
exhaustive. They are chiefly intended to arouse thought and 
interest, — to indicate that outside of the text there is so much 
in history which is profitable to know and attractive to look up. 



THE SECOND SANTA MARIA 11 

their discovery of America. It is interesting to know about this 
earlier exploration of our continent, but it is not connected with 
the real stoiy of settlement. The Norsemen came over 
to this continent from Iceland in the year 1000 a.d. Ji)o(f f ^1*^^°°' 
The stories of their exploration and temporary settle- 
ment were told by word of mouth from father to son until written 
down in " sagas/' or stories, hundreds of years later. Every boy 
and girl should read Longfellow's " The Skeleton in Armor," 
which brings to mind the romantic stories of Norse adventure. 
Reference may be made to extended histories of the United States, 
such as Avery's; and special material may be found in American 
History Leaflets, Old South Leaflets, No. 31, etc. 

In the reading of history, frequent reference to maps is a 
matter of veiy great importance. On the map of the world as 
first known to Columbus and Cabot (page 2), we find the name of 
Marco Polo. A wide-awake American boy or girl is likely to 
wonder at once who Polo was, where he lived, and when. Marco 
Polo wasi bom in Venice about 200 years before Columbus. Be- 
fore he was 21 his father took him on a trading expe- 
dition to China (Cathay). He entered the service of Marco Poki' 
the Great Khan, or Emperor, and did not return for 
many years. On the way back, he traveled through Eastem 
countries and he has left us a very interesting narrative which hs 
dictated while he was a prisoner of war in the city of Genoa. 
His book has in it almost a^ much fable as history; but it 
doubtless served to stir the imagination of many explorers to 
the time of Columbus and Cabot and for some years later. 

Look at the map on page 10 and find out where Columbus would 
have landed, if he had sailed due west from Palos instead of going 
first to the Canary Islands and directing his course from there. 

Four hundred years after Columbus set sail from Palos, a 
vessel modeled after his flagship, the Santa Maria, sailed from the 
same port to the Columbian Exposition, or World's Fair, at 
Chicago, which commemorated the four hundredth 
anniversary of the discovery of the New World. Six ganta^Maria 
years later the United States was the means, through and the last 
freeing Cuba, of taking from Spain the last colony gpa^n^in^the 
left to her of all her once vast possessions in the New World 
Western Hemisphere. The teacher will find additional 
material on the life and times of Columbus in Prescott, Irving, 
Bancroft, Winsor, and other volumes less easily available, such as 
those by Harisse, Thacher, Vignaud. 



12 DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 

When Columbus was being derided for not at onee bringing 
back great riches from the new countiy, some called him " Ad- 
miral of Mosquito Land/' showing that the Spaniards had be- 
come acquainted with the mosquito and the immediate discom- 
fort caused by its bite. The Spaniards did not know, however, 
that the bite of some of these " little flies " of tropical America 
often brought on fever and death. This was found «^^jj,jj.jji ^f 
out by United States Army surgeons after the war with Mosquito 
Spain in 1S98. These brave physicians, believing that Land"; 
the mosquito cari-ied the dread disease, yielded them- 
selves to the bite of insects known to have been with yellow fever 
victims. Their discoveries, which cost them their health and at 
last life itself, led to organized effort to destroy the mosquito in 
Cuba and other tropical countries. Where the mosquito has been 
exterminated, yellow fever has been stamped out, and thousands 
of lives have been saved that must have otherwise been lost. It 
may not be too much to state that the Panama Canal could not 
have been completed but for this discovery by American heroes. 

To the pui)il : Why not ask your English teacher to let you 
choose for some of your compositions descriptions and stories 
connected with American histoiy? These may be based on what 
you think might have happened on any of the voyages of ex- 
ploration; or what happened to " lost " colonies; or on Indian life, 
etc. The writing of American history has wonderfully improved 
in recent years. Perhaps if you start early and write carefully 
you may write books as much better than the ones you now read 
as the latter are better than those wi'itten a hundred years ago ! 

To the teacher: The chapter on the American Indian is put 
in the appendix to be studied when it is thought advisable. 

Dates, for Ready Reference 
A.D. 1000 : Leif Ericson and the discovery of " Vinland." 
A.D. 1450 : Approximate date of fii'st printing giving easy access 

to stories of travel. 
A.D. 1453 : Capture of Constantinople by the Turks forcing search 

for new trade routes to the East. 
A.D. 1486-^87 : Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope. 
A.D. 1492: Columbus discovers the New World. 
A.D. 1497: Cabot discovers the continent of North America. 

1492-1503 : Pope Alexander VI. 
1479-1516: Ferdinand and Isabella (Spain). 
1485-1509: Henry VII (England). 



CHAPTER II 

Exploration and First Settlement 

In 1497, when John Cabot returned to England 
from his first voyage to America, King Henry VII 
gave £10 to "him that found the new Isle." Later, 
he received other rewards for his discovery, 

■ Cabot's 

and he became known in England as "the second 
great Admiral." Like Columbus, he pre- 
pared at once for a second voyage, which he under- 
took in the succeeding year (1198). This time he 
followed the coast of North America southward, pos- 
sibly for several hundred miles. He thus further 




ELIZABETH R (Regina) 

Signature of Queen Elizabeth. She died in 1603, and did not live to see successful 

English settlement in America. 

strengthened the claim of England to a share in the 
future colonization of the New World. As we shall 
see, however, settlement was not to begin for a hun- 
dred years, or during the reigns of Elizabeth and 
James I. 

While the North American continent appeared to 
Europeans as an uninteresting wilderness inhabited 

13 



14 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

by barbarous tribes, the Spaniards found, in Central 
and South America, nations that were semi-civilized, 
with mines of gold and silver. They overcame the 
Spanish and uatives, f orccd them to work in the mines, 
fn^wh"^ and amassed a wealth of precious metal 
America whicli they took back to Spain in great ship 
loads. . All this was done with the greatest cruelty 
and injustice to the often unoffending inhabitants. 
Yet, with this cruelty and wrong on the part of the 
conquerors, there were coupled deeds of the greatest 
daring and sacrifice, so that the stories of Spanish 
explorations and conquests are most interesting. It 
is fascinating to read the story of Balboa, who, in 
1513, first saw from the Isthmus of Panama the ocean 
separating America from the Orient; and that of 
Magellan, who, in 1519, passed through the straits 
that bear his name; called the ocean beyond, the 
Pacific ; and began the voyage which led for the first 
time around the world.^ Whether we read much or 
little about these explorers, it is important for us to 
realize that in the hundred years and more between 
the discovery of North America by the English and 
the first successful colonization at Jamestown, the 
Spanish and the Portuguese were securing for them- 
selves the whole of Central and South America. The 
great stores of gold and silver which they were carry- 
ing back to Europe excited the envy of other nations, 
including the English; and, although the countries 

^Reference to these and other explorers is made at the end 
of this chapter, and their achieveinents may be studied or dis- 
cussed independently of the text. 



FRENCH, SPANISH, AND DUTCH 16 

were not openly at war, Englishmen did not hesitate 
to attack and rob the Spanish treasure vessels, the 
Spaniards attacking, in turn, when they had a favor- 
able opportunity. 

While these things were happening in southern 
waters and in South America, exploring parties and 
fishing and trading vessels were sent out to the 
shores of North America from England, France, and 
the Netherlands. Not infrequently the crews of 
these rival nations would engage in combat pygn^n 
when they met in the New World. ^ French Spanish, and 

•^ Dutch in 

explorations under C artier led to the settle- North 
ment of Canada and for a long time gave 
the English colonies a troublesome neighbor on the 
north. On the other hand, the Spanish explorations 
of De Soto, Ponce de Leon, and others led to the set- 
tlement of Florida, which began in 1565 at St. Augus- 
tine, and which proved a thorn in the side of the 
English settlements in the South. The Dutch estab- 
lished trading posts and settlements in the present 
State of New York, but they were soon absorbed by 
the English; so that the story of the beginnings of 
our country leads us directly to the first attempts at 
settlement by the English, who, by 1733, had estab- 
lished thirteen colonies extending from the St. Law- 
rence to Florida. 

^ One French narrator tells us that on one occasion when 
most of his party had gone on shore, leaving him in charge of 
the ship, an English vessel hove in sight and prepared at once 
for an attack. The Frenchman had one large gun on deck and 
this he fired as promptly as possible. There was no damage done, 
however, because, the Frenchman regretfully adds, in the excite- 
ment of the moment, he had " forgotten to aim the piece." 



16 



EXPLORATION AND' FIRST SETTLEMENT 



Attempts at settlement by the English began in 
the reign of the great Queen Elizabeth and followed 
close upon the voyages of Davis, Frobisher, 
Pacific Gilbert, and Sir Francis Drake. The first 

^°^^^ two have given their names to bodies of 

water found by them in their seach for a northwest 
passage to India; while Sir Francis Drake was the 
first Englishman to go around 
the world. This he accomplished 
in 1577- '80. He plundered Span- 
ish towns and ships on the Pa- 
cific coast of South America and 
sailed along the western coast 
of North America, hoping to find 
a body of water leading east to 
the Atlantic. 

Walter Raleigh secured from 
Queen Elizabeth a charter to ex- 
plore the coast of North America 
and to make settlement there. 
That he should have earnestly 
sought the right to establish a 
settlement is especially impor- 
tant as showing the faith and 
foresight, of Raleigh; for as yet 
no vessels had brought back from North America 
riches in gold and silver; and Europeans began to 
think that, in comparison with South America, the 
North American wilderness was of little value. 
Raleigh, however, had visions of English colonies to 
the West, as Columbus had visions of Eastern trade 




SIB WALTER RALEIGH 

Patron of English coloniza- 
tion in America ; spent much 
of his fortune in attempting 
settlement; engaged in nu- 
merous expeditions against 
the Spaniards; a favorite of 
Elizabeth, but in disfavor 
with James I, who impris- 
oned him in the Tower for 
thirteen years; during his 
imprisonment he wrote a 
"History of the World"; 
executed in 1618. 



RALEIGH PLANS TO PLANT ENGLISH IN AMERICA 17 

routes. In 1584, he sent out ships to explore the 
American coast. These landed on Roanoke Island, 
in what is now North Carolina; and the Raieigh 
English spent several weeks there, living on "plant*an 
the fruits, fish, and game of the country, Jauon" in 
besides carrying on trade with the natives. America 
The report made by this first expedition was so 
attractive that Elizabeth named the country Virginia, 
in honor of herself as the virgin Queen. 




^,5^^»^-< 



A reproduction of one of Governor John White's drawings made on Roanoke 
Island in 1585. It represents the methods used by the Indians in catching fish by the 
weir, or fish trap (on the left), and by spearing them. Various kinds of fish, prob- 
ably unknown to the English, are also shown in the drawing. This is one of the 
first drawings made by an Englishman in North America, twenty-two years before 
permanent settlement at Jamestown. 



18 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

The following year (1585) , a settlement was made 
on the site of the previous landing ; but the colonists 
had trouble with the Indians and returned home some 
months later with Sir Francis Drake, whose fleet they 
hailed in passing. In the meantime, a new party had 
been sent out to reinforce the first one. These found 
the settlement deserted, but left fifteen men to hold 
possession, wdio were surprised by the Indians and 
driven to sea to be seen no more. 

Despite this discouragement, Ealeigh sent out 
another expedition in 1587 which has since been 
known as ''the lost colony.'' It disappeared while 
England was engaged in her great struggle with 
Spain, which reached a climax in the defeat of the 
^'Invincible Armada" (1588). When, therefore, 
Ealeigh could again turn his attention to the settle- 
ment of America, it was too late to save the colony. 
An expedition sent out to succor it found the word 
"Croatoan" written upon a post. This 

The "lost ^ ^ 

colony" of may have meant that the settlers had gone 
to a place of that name where a chief called 
Manteo and friendly Indians lived. Possibly, they 
were massacred on the way by hostile Indians lying 
in ambush. In spite of its unhappy fate, this "lost 
colony " is of great interest to us. It was here in 1587 
that the first child of English parents was born in the 
New World. She was the granddaughter of John 
White, the governor of the colony, and her name was 
Virginia Dare. 

From Roanoke the first party of Englishmen took 
back the potato, which Sir Walter Raleigh planted 
on his estate in Ireland, and which has since become 



FIRST PERMANENT SETTLEMENT, JAMESTOWN 19 

a staple article of food throughout the world. Now, 
we almost wonder how people ever got along without 
it. Some of the settlers began to imitate ^he potato; 
the natives in smoking tobacco, which the ^o^^cco 
Roanoke Indians called '^uppowoc,'' and in England 
the smoking of tobacco soon became very popular.^ 
After the failure of Raleigh 's colony, there were 
two attempts at settlement in what we now know as 
New England. Both of these failed, and the first 
l)ermanent colony was established near the Chesa- 
peake Bay under the direction of a body of 
men in England calling themselves the Lon- permanent 
don Company.^ James I had succeeded jlme^sTown, 
Elizabeth in 1603, and he seemed ever fear- 
ful of offending the Spanish, who still claimed North 
America and had attempted to make settlements 
north of St. Augustine. The charter which James 
was finally induced to grant to the London Company 

^ Queen Elizabeth tried the tobacco and is said to have pro- 
nounced it " a vegetable of singular strength and power." James 
T, however, called it a detestable " weed " and took the trouble to 
write a pamphlet denouncing its " vile " fumes. 

* Bartholomew Gosnold was in command of the first expedi- 
tion. He named Cape Cod and returned to England in 1602 with 
a load of sassafras and lumber. The second was established for 
one winter at the mouth of the Kennebec River. 

To the teacher: Having found that young people often 
confuse the colony sent out by the Plymouth Company in 1606- 
'07 with the later settlement at Plymouth (New England) under 
totally different auspices, and that confusion arises also as to 
the division of land between the London and Plymouth grants, 
the author has thought it advisable to leave these matters out 
of the text, the more especially as the Plymouth Company 
accomplished nothing of importance. 



20 



EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 



led to the equipment of three vessels, the Sarali Con- 
stant, the Goodspeed^ and the Discovery. These 
ships, with about 100 colonists on board, sailed from 
London just before Christmas, according to the ' 'Old 
Style" calendar, — New Style, December 30. Going 
by way of the Canary Islands, the little fleet was four 
months on the seas; and it was early in May, 1(307, 
when they came in sight of land at the mouth of the 




This illustration is designed to show the contrast between the sailing vessels 
which brought over the first colonists to Jamestown and a passenger steamer of 
modern times. The Sarah Constant, the largest of the three sailing vessels, was of 
100 tons burden; the other two were the Goodspecd (40 tons) and the Discovery (20 
tons). The steamer here represented is the Titanic, which in April, 1912, struck 
an iceberg and sank with a loss of over 1500 lives. The Titanic was a vessel of 46,000 
tons, equal to a fleet of 2000 and more vessels of the size of the tiny Discovery, which 
brought over to Jamestown some of the founders of our first colony. 

Chesapeake Bay. Here, on their first landing, they 
were greeted by a flight of arrows from hostile sav- 
ages. Beating off the natives, the colonists first held 
religious services under a wide spreading oak, and 
made their way up ' ' a great river ' ' which they called 
the James. Here, on May 24 (N. S.), they began the 
settlement of Jamestown, the beginning of the first 
successful English colony in the New World.^ 

" To the teacher : Except for the so-called Columbian dates 
of departure and discovery, dates are given by the new calendar 



THE COMMUNAL SYSTEM 21 

It was the most beautiful season of the year. The 
colonists landed in high spirits and began at once to 
plant wheat and cut clapboards for shipment to Eng- 
land. Their first letters home described the wonders 
and beauty of the new country. They wrote of the 
quantities of fish and oysters in the river The new 
and bay, of the magnificent forest, which in appea^red\o 
some places was so free of undergrowth settlers 
that a coach and four horses might pass beneath and 
between the trees, of the wild ^ ^ turkies, ' ' and of flocks 
of '^pidgeons" so numerous when they flew overhead 
that they darkened the sky. Excepting the fierce hos- 
tility of the Indians, everything seemed bright and 
hopeful. The colonists did not know, however, that 
their chosen site was full of perils more to be dreaded 
than hostile savages. The land was low and unhealth- 
ful and the settlers drank the brackish water of the 
James Kiver. On account of these things, its hidden 
malarial fever and other sicknesses seized ^^^^^^ 
them. For many of these ills they knew no remedies, 
and years passed before they learned to adapt them- 
selves to their new conditions. 

In addition to these hardships, the rules of con- 
duct laid down by King James did them great injury. 
They were commanded to look for a passage The 

. PIT T'l communal 

to India, to search for mines ot gold and sil- system 
ver, and to furnish return cargoes of Virginia prod- 
ucts. Furthermore, all were to contribute to and 

instead of by their orig-inal reckoning*. It would seem as strange 
to celebrate the discovery of America on October 21, new style, 
as it would be to celebrate the birthday of George Washington on 
February 11, old style. 



22 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

draw equally from a common storehouse ; so that the 
slothful received as much as the industrious. In such 
cases, experience has proved that the lazy are likely 
to remain so and the industrious to become dis- 
couraged. 

Disputes arose in the Council appointed by the 
King to govern Virginia. These disagreements 
centred, for the most part, around Captain John 
Smith, an adventurous Englishman who had seen 
service in the Avars of several continents. Many of 
our ideas of the Jamestown colony have been obtained 
Captain John from Smith's history of the settlement, 

Smith and . . *^ ' 

his narrative which lie wrotc in England some years later. 
From these accounts we get an unfavorable impres- 
sion of Smith's associates and of the management of 
the men composing the popular or people 's party in 
the London Company. As we now know that this 
party in the London Company was composed of very 
able and patriotic Englishmen, we are inclined to 
think that Captain Smith not only over-rated his 
achievements, but was very unjust to his fellow- 
colonists and the Company.^ 

''To the teacher: It is unfortunate that the beginnmgs of 
the Jamestown colony should still be shrouded in controversy. 
There seems little doubt that we 'can justly give Captain Smith 
credit for being* one of the most daring adventurers of any age 
and that he was ready to brave any peril. On the other hand, we 
may well have occasion to doubt his executive ability in some 
capacities, especially in the management of men and in matters 
which required steadiness and application. Concerning two op- 
posing views of Smith, one as the only able man of the colony, 
and the other as its evil genius, both seem to be incorrect and 
the truth appears to lie between them. Certainly, after reading 



v^- ^rrHg., 



Brown's The Genesis of the Uni.cd States 



ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH 23 

Captain Smith was so devoted to adventure that 
we can imagine with what delight he carried out the 
kinar's order to look for arold mines and to Adventures 
explore the various water courses oi Vir- John smith 
ginia to see if any of them led to India and the East. 
Not only did he explore these rivers and the waters 
of the Chesapeake, but he drew very good maps of all 
he saw. On one of these trips 
he was seized by the Indians y * 

and carried before their king, 
Powhatan. Smith relates 
that as he was about to be 
beaten to death, Pocahontas, for'l^sh1rt,f:!.?Tt?oS^^^^r: 
the twelve-year-old daughter Sin'f609!rt=;iSli°in';'^rS: 

« T-4 T , 1 T i> ployed by the London Company; 

01 Powhatan rushed tor- visaed and named New England 

^ , n ,-, coast in 1614; published in 1624 a 

ward and beS^Sred her lather "History of Virginia, the summer 

. ^P Islands and New England." This 

to spare his life. Powhatan signature may be compared with 

^ that of George rercy, also of the 

frrarcl-pr] Tiov vomiPQ'l' i^r\c\ Jamestown Colony, and with the 

gldlUeU Iiei lequebl dllU signatures of some of the Pilgrim 

allowed Captain Smith to Fathers shown. 

return to Jamestown in January, 1608. Later, Smith 

became President of the Council by reason of the 

Smith's own narrative, it is impossible to accept the opinion of 
Edward Arber, the Oxford editor of Smith's complete works, 
that the Captain was one of the most modest of men. It seems 
more reasonable to accept the views of Alexander Brown, who, 
after years of research in the British archives, published many 
records previously little known or considered. Brown contends 
that Captain Smith denounced the Company's management in 
Virginia and praised the king's plan, in order to aid James I in 
overthrowing the " dangerous " democracy of that corporation. 
See Brown : English Politics iti Early Virginia History; also, 
especially for reprints of old records, documents, etc., his The 
Genesis of the United States; also, Captain John Smith's Works, 
edited by Edward Arber. 



m°^^r^ 



24 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

order of succession provided for by the king. More 
settlers arrived, but large numbers of them died of 
malarial fever. Smith himself was injured in 1609 
by the accidental explosion of a bag of gun-powder 
and he returned to England. He was not again em- 
ployed by the London Company, although he after- 
wards visited the northern coast of the continent and 
called it ^eio England. 

Upon the departure of Smith, George Percy suc- 
ceeded to the Presidency. In the meantime, the first 

marriage in the new 
colony was celebrated ; 
and the first child born 

in the colony was bap- 
Brown's The Genesis of the United States. ^ ... 

Signature of George Percy, one of the famous tlZCd Virginia, thC 

Percy family of the border country between . . ,, 

Scotland and England; colonists in Virginia HamC glVCll tO tUC 
from 1607 to 1612; like John Smith, he was an 

adventurous character and a brave soldier. granddaughter 01 (xOV- 

ernor White of the ''lost colony" (see p. 18). But 
colonists could not feel safe in the new land, for half 
of each company of settlers died from chills and 
fever before they grew used to the unaccustomed 
climate and conditions. In 1610, therefore, the weak- 
ened and discouraged survivors of fever and of the 
Lord incessant attacks by Indians prepared to 

?aveTthe rcturn to England. They had actually em- 
coiony, 1610 barked for the voyage, when they were met 
at the mouth of the James River by Lord Delaware 
with new settlers and supplies. All returned to 
Jamestown, and Delaware gave thanks to God that 
he had come in time to save the settlement. 

From 1611 to 1619, there were times of great 



MARRIAGE OF JOHN ROLFE AND POCAHONTAS 25 

distress; but there 
was also an in- 
crease in the num- 
ber of settlers who 
had been through 
the season of ma- 
larial sickness and 
were hardened or 
acclimatized. 
These could work, 
therefore, with 
vigor and hope of 
success. Duringthis 

P eriod, Marriage of 
^ ' John Rolfe 

P C a - and 
^ Pocahontas, 

h o n t a s 1614 
was seized as a 
hostage for the fu- 
ture good behavior 
of Chief Powhatan. 
While she was a 
captive, a settler 
named John Rolfe 
fell in love with 

Copyright. 1908, William Ordway Partrid-e thC iUdiaU priU^ 

Statue of Pocahontas, executed by the American (.ggg ' > jlQW ninC- 

sculptor. William Ordway Partridge, for Jamestown »-coo. 

Island, where Pocahontas saved the first settiement J-p^^ VCarS ot aSTC, 

from massacre, and where she married John Rofe leeii y^clia VJ 5 , 

The expenses for this memorial were defrayed by tne p^-,,-.^p-pf p/J "Up-t- -(-q 

Pocahontas Society, the Daughters of the American COn\ CrXeQ 11«1 tU 

Revolution, the Colonial Dames, and other patriotic QJ^^' ^^- ^^^^.^ ^Ud 

married her. The marriage greatly helped the 
struggling colony, for it brought peace with the 




26 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

Indians during several years of slow growt'li and 
expansion/ 

John Eolfe was the first Englishman to begin 
the cultivation of the tobacco plant, which soon be- 
came a leading industry in the colony and was the 
cause of its first period of prosperity. At one time, 
Cultivation ^^^^ profit iu raising tobacco led the settlers 
of tobacco Iq plant it alongside the streets of 
Jamesto^^al. The need for more cleared ground for 
its cultivation accounted for the beginning of several 
''plantations'' or settlements. Indeed, tobacco was 
said to be ' ' almost worth its weight in gold, ' ' as it sold 
in 1617 for about $12.00 a pound in present-day value. 

Under the administration of Sir Thomas Dale 

(1611-1616), the communal system was abolished 

and thus a great obstacle to progress was removed. 

Dale was a strict, unyielding soldier, and under his 

rule very severe laws were laid down for the 

Administra- ^ ^ i • i 

tion of Sir colouists. Hc was extremely jealous of m- 
Daie, 1611- truslou ou tlic part of any foreign nation 
into the domain of Virginia, a name under 
which the English then included the whole of America 
from Florida northward. When he heard, therefore, 
of Spaniards ' ' spying out the country, ' ' he generally 
managed to seize them;' and he sent out two expedi- 

' Pocahontas was taken to England and welcomed at court, 
where, no doubt, she suffered from homesickness. After her 
death, in 1G17, her husband returned to America. Her son, 
Thomas Rolfe, was educated in England, but settled in Virginia. 
Through him a number of Virginians trace descent from Poca- 
hontas. In 1915, one of these descendants of Pocahontas be- 
came the wife of the President of the United States. 



ORIGIN OF SELF-GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA 27 

tions to the north, which succeeded in capturing sev- 
eral groups of French settlers as far distant as the 
present State of Maine. 

While Dale was acting as Governor of Virginia, 
events of the greatest importance were happening in 
England. These events were destined to affect the 
whole course of colonial history. The first charter 
granted by James I to the colonists in 1606 gave the 
settlers ^'the civil rights of free Englishmen at 
home, ' ' hut it gave them little or no real self-govern- 
ment. A second charter, granted in 1609, defined the 
boundaries of Virginia as given in the map on p. 30 ; 
but, in 1612, a third charter was granted, The origin 
taking away from the King's Council much ernment7n 
of their former power and making the Lon- America 
don Company largely a self-governing body. The 
terms of this third charter enabled the Company itself 
to confer more or less self-government on its colony 
in America. In due time there arose two parties in 
the Company: a ''people's," or ''patriot," party, 
which desired self-government for the colony ; and a 
"royal," or "king's," party, which tried to suppress 
popular government. In reality, it was a struggle 
between the rising spirit of democracy and the old 
doctrine of the "divine right of kings." In Britain, 
this struggle was to result in curbing the powers of 
the monarchy. In America, it was destined to result : 
first in colonial self-government, and subsequently 
in the setting up of an independent republic.^ 

* To the teacher: It has been said that our history as 
colonies of Great Britain and as a republic is inseparably bound 
up in the term self-government. At this point, or a little later, 



28 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

The popular party was led by Sir Edwin Sandys, 
under whose direction this first charter of self- 
government was prepared. The new orders were 
entrusted to Sir George Yeardley, who arrived at 
Jamestown, April 29, 1619 (April 19, 0. S.) ; and on 
^. ^ August 9, the first American parliament or 

First repre- ^ ' ^ 

sentative cougrcss was Called together. The twenty 

assembly in ^ t* -i • n 

America, mcmbers 01 this first representative assem- 
bly, called the Virginia House of Burgesses, 
were elected by ten separate communities or ^' plan- 
tations. '^ Six councillors represented the London 
Company, and Governor Yeardley presided over the 
Assembly. The Church of England was made the 
church of Virginia and attendance at services was 
made compulsory. Laws were also passed taxing 
especial display in wearing apparel in order 
concerning to prcvcut Or limit cxtravagauco in these 
education, mattcrs. Although, at this time, the entire 
in us ry population of tlic colouy was less than two 
thousand persons, the Assembly voted a tract of 
10,000 acres for the founding of a school or *^ univer- 
sity ' ' at Henrico, on the James River. Grants of land 
were also made to the boys and girls of the older 
colonists ; and laws were passed for the encourage- 
ment of agriculture. 

The early historians of Virginia tell us that dur- 
ing this first great period of growth and prosperity 
the unmarried colonists had their hearts ^^made 

occasion should be made for a careful explanation of the term. 
Also, democratic ideas and republican forms of p^overnment 
should be distinguished from the names of political parties of the 
present time. 



HOME LIFE FOR THE SETTLERS 



29 






k^ 










J^-^ ''-^'^ 






C'/^^u/f 






/^ 



,;'>;>/« ^, />^^v 






■fruif 7vcrt jncnh , a4 a^ic ■or /-v 
fhf>r^ iTVff-f ^Acte* t»^ ^t 



*n( 












nr 






f 



f/ruM 






. Reproduction of a pa.e of the proceedings of the first represe^ 
in America, held at Jamestown, 1619. it Mas ^^^ /oreru ^mong the names 

?r.ird\tV:^;X'3\t{''o^f?„r„T/cL?o: L"-rn''oer;i-f Tho-ni Jcfierson, 
the author of the Declaration of Independence. 



30 



EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 




Longituae 78" West fioiu (Greenwich 76' 



Map of Jamestown and the neighboring settlements prior to the settlement ci 
Maryland and North Carolina. Map also gives Roanoke Island, the site of the so- 
called Lost Colony" sent over by Sir Walter Raleigh. "Middle Plantation" 
afterwards became Williamsburg, the capital pf early Virginia after Jamestown, 



NEGRO INDENTURED SERVANTS 31 

very glad" by the success attending the efforts of 
Sir Edwin Sandys to provide them with More home 
good wives from home. At any rate, in setuers^^^ 
1619, a number of young women agreed to go to 
America to become helpmates to Virginia bachelors, 
who paid the expenses of their voyage in thousands 
of pounds of tobacco. 

Not only did the colonists desire helpmates in 
their homes, but the first settlers stood greatly in 
need of labor to till the land and develop indus- 
tries. Such has ever been the case with the 
western frontier of our country; and so it white 
was with the Jamestown settlement. To servants 
supply the demand for laborers, the planters ar- 
ranged for the coming of 'indentured" servants, or 
persons who were bound out to labor for a number 
of years to those who agreed to pay for their passage 
to America. After their service had expired, these 
persons generally obtained land for themselves. 

The same year (1619) in which so many note- 
worthy events happened, negroes were introduced 
into the colony, also as indentured servants. Some 
of these first negroes, if not all, gained their Negro 
freedom as did the whites. In the case of servants^ 
the negroes, however, it was soon recog- ^^^' 
nized that they were far- inferior in development, 
and that savages but lately redeemed from the low- 
est forms of barbarism in Africa might become a 
menace if granted the civil rights of Englishmen. It 
was natural that life-service and slavery itself should 
grow out of the importation of these indentured negro 



32 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

laborers. In a short time, therefore, negro slavery 
became common in all the English colonies and was 
the source of an unhappy traffic or slave trade which 
proved very profitable to British trade monopolies.^ 
It has been seen that the year 1619 was a most 
important one in the history of America ; for at this 
time in a new country, the great principles of self- 
government were being tested. But the group of 
far-sighted men who gave the first colonists this 
measure of liberty had incurred the enmity of the 
narrow-minded James I. The king forth- 
with accused the London Company of mis- 
management, and, in 1624, took away its charter. 
So perished this patriotic body; but the principles 
implanted by its members in the minds and hearts of 
American colonists were destined to live forever and 
to hold up the light of popular government to 
enlighten both the Old World and the New. 

^ To the teacher : When the indentured negro servants were 
brought over in 1619, slavery was unknown to English custom, 
although it was common throughout Spanish America. The 
English colonists became gi'adually used to it in a far more 
humane form than in any other country of the world. In the 
English colonies the negro was undoubtedly raised in the scale 
of civilization. Contrary to Spanish precedent, there was no 
sustained effort in any of the English colonies to enslave the 
Indians. The African negro seemed for the most part contented 
in a condition of slavery; the Indian, on the other hand, had de- 
veloped so strong a sense of personal freedom that with him it 
was literally a case of " liberty or death." For the investigations 
which recently brought out the hitherto unknown fact that the first 
negroes imported w^ere servants rather than slaves^ see " The Free 
Negro in Virginia" (Dr. John H. Russell) in the Johns Hopkins 
University " Studies in Historical and Political Science," 1913. 



DOCTORS WOTTON AND RUSSELL 33 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

It is worth remembering tli-at the first English settlements 
aroused keen interest among scientists, scholars, poets, _ . 
and artists, some of whom risked the great perils of the interest In 
Atlantic passage and endured the hardships of j^ioneers t^^ ^^^ 
for the sake of investigation and discovery. 

The Governor of the " lost colony " at Roanoke Island, 

Captain John White, was an artist and author. He Governor 

escaped the fate of his companions when he returned I°^f ^^^*^ 
. _,^ - ^ _ .. , ^% - 1 ,-orT TT 1 first artist in 

to England tor supplies m November, 1587. He made North 

drawings in water-colors of the Indians and of natural America 

objects hitherto strange to Europeans. One of those drawings is 

reproduced on page 17. Copies of the original drawings in the 

British Museum are in the Smithsonian Institution and in the hall 

of history, at Raleigh, North Carolina. 

Thomas Hariot, who invented some of the " signs " we use 
in arithmetic and algebra, was with this expedition. Hariot has 
left us interesting accounts of the roots, fruits, fish, Thomas 
fowls, etc., that the Indians ate, and of their dress, ^^!J°*' 
dyes, customs, and religion. He wrote : " Some of our tician and 
company shewed themselves too furious in slaying some author 
of the people in some Townes, upon causes that on our part might 
have been borne with more mildness; notwithstanding they justly 
desei'ved it." 

Dr. Thomas Wotton (Wootton) and Dr. Walter Russell were 
among the first physicians of early settlement. Dr. Wotton seems 
to have incurred the dislike of Captain Smith, and we hear at 
greater length of Dr. Russell. While fishing, Smith was badly 
stung by the spine of the sting-ray and he writes of his Doctors 
injury that, " In 4. houres, had so extreamly swolne his Wotton and 
hand, arme, shoulder, and part of his body, as we al surgeon a^"* 
with much sorrow concluded his funerall, and pre- first 
pared his grave in an He hard by (as himself e ap- P^^ysician 
pointed) ; which then wee called Stingeray He, after the name of 
the fish. Yet by the helpe of a precious oile. Doctor Russel applyed, 
ere night his tormenting paine was so wel assuaged that he eate the 
fish to his supper: which gave no lesse joy and content to us then 
ease to himselfe." 

An interesting character at Jamestown was George Thorpe, 
3 



34 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

a scholar and foiTaer member of Parliament, who was given 

charge of the lands of Henrico University, where he labored to 

convert and educate the Indians. He built a home for 
Qgorgg 

Thorpe and Opechancanough, Powhatan's treacherous brother, the 
Indian front door of which was provided with a lock and key. 

We are told that the chief's principal delight was to 
open and reopen the lock a hundred times a day, for he thought " no 
device in the world comparable with it." This pioneer teacher of 
the Indians was slain by them in the massacre of 1622. 

A traveler, author, and poet of note in England was George 
George Sandys, who came over to Virginia in 1621 and re- 

Sandys, turned to England several years later. He was a mem- 

poet in ber of the Council in the new colony, and while in 

America Virginia worked on parts of his poetic translation of 

Ovid's " Metamoi-phoses," " imprinted " in London in 1626. 

Money for the erection of Henrico University was subscribed 
in both England and Virginia. Two departments were estab- 
The first lished, a college for the education of the Indians and a 

school fYQQ school preparatory department. The college and 

school were destroyed during the Indian massacre of 1622, and the 
cause of education in Virginia received a blow from which it did 
not recover for many years. 

To the teacher: The communal system, fii-st attempted at 
Jamestown, Avas again tried with disastrous results in the case 
of the Pilgi-ims at Plymouth thirteen years later. The mortality of 
the first company of Pilgrims was as great as that at Jamestown. 
The No one questions the high character of the great ma- 

communal jority of the Pilgrim Fathers, and their first historian 
system ^^^^ sympathetic and fair. Hence, it does not seem just 

to follow the lead of Captain Smith in condemning the Jamestown 
colonists as incompetent or worse because of the failure of this plan 
of government and because of the disease and fatalities due to un- 
accustomed conditions and to inexperience in meeting these con- 
ditions. It is more than likely that Wingfield, Archer, Martin, 
Ratcliffe, Gosnold, Percy, and other settlers of the James- 
town colony, were men of character and worth. Smith called 
Archer, Martin, and Ratcliffe " tiffity-taffety " incompetents: 
yet these tln-ee members of the Virginia Council showed them- 
selves to be men of daring and strong purpose at least; for, after 
the hardships and privations of the first year, they could have 



REFERENCE LIST OF EXPLORATIONS 35 

remained in Old England, whither they had returned, possibly to 
i>et imniigrants. Instead of remaining, however, they came back 
to the colony for better or for worse. Ratcliffe was president of 
the Virginia Council from September, 1607, to September, 1608, 
in the regular order of succession. On his return to Virginia, he 
was seized and murdered by Powhatan. Captain character of 
Gabriel Archer, the first man wounded by the Indians, t^e first 
died in the winter of 1609-'10. Captain John Martin <^°^°^^^*s 
commanded the Benjamin under Sir Francis Drake in the expedi- 
tion which visited Roanoke Island in 1586. Except for brief visits 
to the mother country, he was in Virginia from 1606 to 1616, in 
which year the London Company rewarded him with ten shares of 
land in Virginia. In 1617, he established a prosperous plantation 
at Martin's Brandon on the James River. Here he lived for some 
years as a successful settler and as the sole survivor in Virginia of 
the original Council. 

Reference List of Explorations and Attempts at Coloniza- 
tion FROM THE Discoveries of Columbus and Cabot to 
Successful Settlement at Jamestov^n 

1498 : Second voyage of John Cabot. 

1506: Denys (French) discovers the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1513: Ponce de Leon (Spanish) names the Florida peninsula in 
his search for the fabled " Fountain of Youth." 

1513: Balboa (Spanish) crosses the Isthmus of Panama. 

1518 : Cortes begins the Spanish conquest of Mexico. 

1519 : Magellan rounds the southernmost point of South America, 
and begins the voyage which first circumnavigated the 
globe, Magellan himself being killed in the Philippine 
Islands. 

1526: De Ayllon (Spanish) attempts settlement in North America, 
possibly as far north as the Chesapeake Bay. De Ayllon 
commanded a company of 600 men and a number of 
negTo slaves. He built a town which he called San 
Miguel, but the settlement was abandoned after three- 
fourths of the colonists had died from disease or from 
attacks by hostile savages. 

.1534-^35: Cartier (French) explores the St. Lawrence. 

1539-^42: Hernando de Soto (Spanish), Governor of Cuba, 
lands on the west coast of Florida with an expedition 



36 EXPLORATION AND FIRST SETTLEMENT 

of 600 men. His course led him northward and west- 
ward through what are now the States of Florida, 
Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Ar- 
kansas, and Louisiana. De Soto himself died near the 
Mississippi River, and was buried in its waters after 
three years of wandering through an almost trackless 
Avilderness and in the face of a hundred attacks by 
hostile Indians. 

1562-'65: Ribault (French) attempts settlement north of St. 
Augustine. 

1565: Successful Spanish settlement at St. Augustine, Florida. 

1579: Sir Francis Drake (English) e'xplores the Pacific coast, 
lands near the present site of San Francisco, and calls 
the country Nova Albion (the western " New Eng- 
land"). 

1583: Sir Humphrey Gilbert (English) attempts settlement on 
coast of Newfoundland. 

1585-^87: Raleigh (English) attempts settlement at Roanoke 
Island. 

1602: Gosnold (English) attempts settlement on northern coast. 

1607-'08: English attem])t to settle in northern Virginia (Maine). 

1607: First successful English settlement, Jamestown. 

Dates for Reference 

1509-'47: Reign of Henrv YIII. 

1547-'53 : Reign of Edward YL 

1553-'58: Reign of Marv. 

1558-1603 : Reign of Eiizabetb. 

1603-'25: Reign ofJames I, Union of England and Scotland. 



CHAPTER III 

Beginnings of English Colonization in New 
England 

Colonization in the northern part of Virginia, 
first called "New England" by Captain Smith, began 
in 1620 and became, in point of time, the second suc- 
cessful settlement made by the English. The his- 
tory of this settlement is important and interesting, 
and it is necessary for us to go back to Old England 
to understand its beginnings. In England, at this 
time, people who did not approve of the forms of 
worship laid down by the Established Church were 
harassed or persecuted by the government. In 
1608, after many difficulties and privations, many of 
these English dissenters fled from their Religious 
homes and established themselves in Hoi- fnEngLnd" 
land, at that time the only country in the world 
which allowed all Christians religious freedom. The 
leaders of this group were John Robinson, William 
Brewster, and William Bradford. 

Entering into the life of the Dutch and conduct- 
ing themselves as industrious citizens, the exiles 
were welcomed by the people of Holland. On the 
other hand, the English immigrants began to fear 
that in the course of time their children would inter- 
mingle with the Dutch and forget their English 
speech and origin. Moreover, it seemed to them 
likely that, as the twelve-year truce was about to 

37 



W^ -^i^aJjvnL 



38 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

end, war might break out between the Dutch and 
their former foes, the Spanish. It was natural for 
Life in them, therefore, to think about emigrating 
16O8-1620' to the New World, where they could con- 
tinue to be Englishmen and have the same liberty 
with regard to religious worship.^ 

After much anxious discussion, it was decided 
that some of the exiles should leave Holland, meet a 
number of their fellow- 
believers in England, and 
embark for the New World. 

, I'roiu Avery's History of the United States and 

T^l-ipqci p,YllpQ or ^^^ People 

Setting out J-HCOt: ^.Vi.±co, yj Courtesyof The United states History Company, 

for America pUgrims, as they ^^^^^'^"'^ 

n 1 1 *i Autograph of William Bradford, gov- 

beSran to be called, reached emor of the Plymouth Colony almost 

^ ' continuously from 1621 to 1657, the 

Plymouth, England, in the year of his death Besides showing 

•^ 7 o 7 great ability in the management of 

Speedwell. Here they were oT7eiiX^usteSand:?t\f''H?s5o?; 
joined by their compatriots of the Plymouth plantation.- 

in the Mayfloiver. Both vessels set out for America ; 
but the captain of the Speedwell thought, or pre- 
tended, that his boat was leaking and could not be 
trusted. The Speedwell then gave up the voyage and, 
on September 16, 1620, the Mayflower sailed for 
America with about 100 men and women on board. 
It was not the intention of the emigrants to go to 

^ '' They lived here," wrote Bradford, " but as men in exile, 
and in a poor condition; and as great miseries mig'ht possibly 
befall them in this place, for the 12 years of truce were now out, 
and there was nothing but beating of drums, and preparing for 
war, the events whereof are always uncertain. The Spaniard 
might prove as cruel as the savages of America, and the famine 
and pestilence as sore here as there, and their liberty less to look 
out for remedy." 



LANDFALL AND SETTLEMENT 39 

New England^ where the Plymouth Company had 
failed, but to settle on the coast south of the Hudson 
River far enough from Jamestown to be free from 
possible interference by the colony established there 
under the laws of the Church of England. But 
storms and continued bad weather drove Landfaii; 
the Mayflower from her course, and the mentrDic] 
colonists found themselves at Cape Cod, on ^^' ^"° 
the coast of Massachusetts. They first landed near 
the present site of Provincetown in November. The 
prospect before them at the beginning of the winter 
season on the almost uninhabited New England shore 
was enough to dishearten the boldest, but no group 
of men and women 
has ever shown 
greater degree of the J/H ll'l'lf\t tJ^ Yi/yVS^Cf 

courage and determi- IromAvery-s History of the UnUed states ami its People 
- „ Courtesy of The United States History Company 

nation that come irom , , , _.„. 

Autograph of William Brewster, a founder 

strong character and «; *Y ^^^1°^ S°^T-^i,''u ^^^''\ \ ^^^^ ^^^}<^\ 

o at Plymouth, of which he had the principal 

hi^h "DurDose After ^^^® ^'^t^^ 1^29 ; died Apru le, i664. 
lying ^YQ weeks off the coast on board the May- 
flower, the colonists determined to make a perma- 
nent settlement at the place called by Captain Smith 
(New) Plymouth. Here, on December 21, they began 
to construct as best they could shelter from the 
storms of the winter. 

Although they arrived in America at the most 
inhospitable time of the year, the Pilgrims were 
fortunate in that a pestilence among the Indians 
some three years before had almost destroyed the 
native tribes along the northeastern coast. On the 



1^ n L 



40 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

other hand, they were unprepared for the severity 
of the New England dhnate and many died of ex- 
Their first posure. Others perished from scurvy and 

winter, ... 

i62o-'2i similar ills, due to lack of fresh food and of 

fruits ; so that, in a few months, half of them had died. 

We may imagine with what joy the surviving 
settlers welcomed the coming of spring and with it 
the beginnings of friendly relations with their 
savage neighbors, the Wampanoag Indians. These 
Relations amicablc relations, managed with pi-udence 
Indians and f aimcss by the Plymouth settlers, were 
to continue for half a century. The chief of the 
Wampanoags was Massasoit. Some years before, 
one of the tribe, Squanto, had been carried oft" to 
England in an expedition led by Captain Smith. 
After being kindly treated, Squanto had been sent 
back to America ; so that he now proved very useful 
to the Pilgrims. He acted as an interpreter for 
The first them and showed them how to plant corn, 
season, 1621 usiiig fisli f or fertilizer in each hill, and he 
also showed them how ^'to dress and tend it" when 
it had sjDrouted. 

It was seen in the preceding chapter that some 
years passed before the colonists of Virginia se- 
cured a great deal of self-government. The Pilgrims 
were more fortunate. When they saw that they were 
outside the bounds of their appointed place for 
Self-govern- Settlement, thev drew up a compact on 

ment with , liiTi^ n 

the Pilgrims Doard the Mayjioiver, under which it was de- 
termined that they themselves should make laws for 
the good of the colony, which all pledged themselves 



THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 41 

to obey. Like the earlier settlers at Jamestown, 
however, the Pilgrims were bound to the communal 
system described on page 21. The result was that 
success and good feeling among the colo- communal 
nists did not attend their labors until the system 
system was abandoned in 1623. Meanwhile ' ' starving- 
times " had seized the settlers, and once they thought 
they would haye been "undone" but for the timely 
arrival from Virginia of supplies brought by a fish- 
ing vessel from the earlier colony.^ Nevertheless, in 
a few years, in spite of these trials and of bad man- 
agement or misunderstanding on the part of its sup- 
porters in England, the colony was on a firm basis. 
By 1630, however, the Pilgrims had become out- 
numbered and overshadowed by the immigration of 
other Dissenters, who came direct from England. 
These Dissenters became more generally The Massa- 
known as Puritans. They thought that the coiony 
English Church should abolish most of its forms and 
ceremonies, and that certain of its doctrines should 
be changed or abandoned. They did not wish to 
withdraw from the Church as the Pilgrims did, but 
they said that they wished to "purify" it and make 

^ The visiting Virginians were survivors of the terrible mas- 
sacre of 1622, which had taken place a few weeks before. Their 
cai)tain, John Huddleston, addressed the Pilgrims thus : " Friends, 
counti-ymen, and* neighbors : . . . Bad news doth spread itself 
too far; yet I will so far inform you that myself, with many good 
friends in the south colony of Virginia, have received such a 
blow, that 400 persons will not make good our losses. Therefore, 
I do intreat you (although not knowing you) that the old rule 
which I learned when I Vv^ent to school, may be sufficient. That 
is, ' Happy is he whom other men's harm doth make to beware.' " 



42 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

it better according to tlieir ideas. Under Charles I, 
these Puritans were persecuted like their Pilgrim 
brethren. Encouraged by the successful coloniza- 
tion of the Pilgrims, they began to emigrate to New 
England. From 1628 to 1630, they began settlements 
at Salem, Boston, and other places on the shore of 
Massachusetts Bay. Hence this later group became 
known as the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and the 
body of men in England that sent out the settlers was 
called the Massachusetts Bay Company. 

We have seen that the London or Virginia Com- 
pany had been overthrown by James I because of 
its spirit of democracy and independence. That 
Company held its meetings in England, where it was 
easy for the King to reach it. In the case of the Com- 
pany of Massachusetts Bay, however, the charter, 
secured under Charles I, did not state where the Com- 
pany should hold its meetings. The supporters of 
the new colony, therefore, doubtless fearing the fate 
Transfer of of tlic Virginia Company, transferred its 

Massachu- f - i 4 • -i 

setts Bay charter and meeting place to American soit, 
Amerka ° witli tlic determination to set up there, in 
very large measure, a self-governing body or com- 
munity independent of the English Church and as 
free as possible from the political control of the king. 
From the first, the Puritan settlers showed a 
marked determination to govern themselves ; and, as 
Independent Cliarlcs I had his hands well occupied with 
the Puritans rcligious and political troubles at home, he 
was forced to overlook the independent acts and at- 
titude of what soon became a numerous colony. The 



PURITAN IDEAS OF CHURCH AND STATE 43 

principal leader in this Puritan emigration was John 
Winthrop, the first Governor of the Bay Colony and 
a man of unusual ability. He came over in 1630 with 
no less than 900 emi- ^ • ^ 

grants. ^^ar^dzei-urfiathroj^e. 

JL lieSe J: UritanS From Avery's History of the United States and Its People 

^ii70V£i -FrkT- -fllO. TYincf Courtesy of The United states History Company, Cleveland 

• Weie, iUl Lli« inUbL Autograph of Margaret, wife of Governor John 

wv\v\ mATI nf taf-rnna" Wi^throp. That she was a great help to Gov- 

pdl L, llicll yjL oliUlig ernor Winthrop is shown in his letters to her in 

■II ■] England before she joined him in America. Her 

CnaraCter ana pur- husband testified in his diary, after her death in 

, . . -.1647, that she was "specially beloved and 

pose, but stern and honored of the country." 

severe to a degree which we can hardly understand 
to-day. They had been persecuted in England like 
the Pilgrim Fathers, but, unlike the Pilgrims, they 
had not become tolerant of the opinions of those who 
did not agree with them. The government they set 
up was made up of parishes or township units, and 
its control was in the hands of a select number who 
accepted the political and religious belief s ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
of the leading men. As Governor Win- and state 
throp maintained, ''The best part of a community is 
always the least ; and of that best part, the wiser part 
is always the lesser.'' ^ 

In order to uphold what they believed was ''the 
best part'' of the people, the Puritans were bold 
enough to send back to England those who believed 
in the customs and usages of the English Church, 
from which they had now separated themselves. 
This act was perhaps the first of a long series of acts 

'To the teacher: A talk might be had at this point as to 
what degrree this sentiment holds good in our thought and govern- 
ment to-day. Cf. foot-note, p. 48. 



44 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

in whicli they showed their determination to manage 
their own affairs. When Charles I expressed his 
Controversy Jispleasuro with the independent manner of 
Charles I the 'Bay colony, the Puritans prepared to 
resist. As early as 1636 they set up defences to repel 
any force that might be sent against them, and the 
name Beacon Hill came from the signal station they 
then established upon the highest point in Boston. 

As in all cases where a few attempt absolute con- 
trol of government and religion, disagreements arose 
in the colony; and as the Puritans were dissenters 
protesting against the usages of the church of Old 
England, so, in turn, dissenters arose in protest 
against the rule of the Puritan church in New 
Roger England. The most noted of 'these new dis- 

Willlams ^-» -r • 

preaches seutcrs Were iioger wuliams and Mrs. 
liberty Auuc Hutcliinsou. The former was pastor 
of the Puritan church at Salem, but he began to 
preach doctrines that were at variance with those of 
the rest of the Puritan leaders. Some of these doc- 
trines were: (1) that land in America belonged to 
the Indians, and, for that reason, the king had no 
right to give it away; (2) that the church and the 
state (religious and political government) should be 
separated, and that no one should be made to pay 
taxes to support a church or minister; (3) that each 
individual was responsible to God only for his 
religious opinions.^ 

* To the teacher: It must be borne in mind that in early- 
New England history under the Puritans, church authority was 
practically synonymous with g-overnment, and that the Puritan 
ministers were leaders in political thought. 



COLONY OF RHODE ISLAND 45 

It was plain to tlie Puritan leaders that their form 
of government could not continue if the doctrines set 
forth by Roger Williams were to spread. Conse- 
quently, in 1636, they made plans to send him back to 
England; but Williams fled into the wilderness in 
the dead of winter and soon thereafter established 
a settlement on the shore of Narragansett Bay, 
which he called Providence; for God, he said, had 
provided a home for him there. • Living up Beginning 
to his political and religious beliefs, he en- H Rhod''i°"^ 
tered into treaties with the Indians for such island, i636 
land as he needed f OT purposes of settlement. Provi- 
dence ' ' Plantation ' ' was outside the limits of the Mas- 
sachusetts Bay Colony and was the beginning of the 
colony of Rhode Island. Here the religious dis- 
senters and the persecuted of other settlements were 
welcomed. Here, also, came Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
and some of her followers, who were driven from 
Boston on account of their religious beliefs. These 
bought land from the Indians and founded Newport 
and other places. From 1630 until the outbreak of 
the war betAveen Royalists and Puritans in Britain, 
the growth and expansion of the Puritan colonies in 
New England was remarkable.^ 

In 1633 the Dutch established a fort in support of 
a profitable fur trade on the Connecticut River. This 

^ Some of Mrs. Hutchinson's followers fled northward and 
began a settlement at Exeter, not far from settlements already 
beg-un by Englishmen not of the Puritan sect. Later, settlers 
from Massachusetts came into the neighborhood, and, in 1679, 
Charles II united them into the colony or royal province of New 
Hampshire. 



46 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION 



fort was built as far north as the present site of 
Hartford. The Dutch, from their principal settle- 
The Dutch nient at New Amsterdam (New York), 
claims claimed all of eastern Connecticut ; but, in 

1635, John Winthrop, the son of Governor Winthrop 




10 20 30 



Map of New England; shaded portions show settlements in Massachusetts, New 
Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 

of Massachusetts Bay, built at the mouth of the Con- 
necticut a fort which controlled that river and forced 
the Dutch out of the Connecticut Valley. The fol- 
lowing year (1636), a great number of settlers poured 



BEGINNING OF THE COLONY OF CONNECTICUT 47 



into the Connecticut Valley. One of their leaders 
was Thomas Hooker, a Puritan clergyman. Like 
Eoger Williams, Hooker held new views as The 
to government. As we have seen, Governor th^e^coTony of 
Winthrop believed in government by a Connecticut 
limited part of the people. Hooker believed that all 
the people should take , . ,.., 



^£r 



THE. 



.§K WHOLE 

'cfj^ BOOKEOFPSALMES 



.kcd 3 'Jir.-Oi 



\\:\ 



part in the making and 
maintenance of govern- 
ment. Winthrop 's 
scheme of government 
created an aristocracy 
or a favored few. 
Hooker, on the other 
hand, was in favor of 
democracy, or a govern- 
ment, as far as possible, 
^'of the people, for the 
people, and by the 
people." At first these 
new settlements held 
themselves to be asso- 
ciated with the Massa- 
chusetts Colony ; but, in 
1639, those south of the 
boundary of Massachu- 
setts created a separate 
colony with a written 
constitution. As this is 
said to be the first government of free people set 
up under a written constitution, Connecticut is 



Title-pa^e of the first book publisliod in 
the English colonies. It was printed from 
the first press, set up at Cambridge by 
Stephen Daye, an apprentice printer from 
London. The press was under the control 
of Harvard College. 



48 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

sometimes called ''the Constitutional State." It 
maintained this constitution when, in 1662, it was 
provided with a charter under Charles 11.^ 

The greatly increasing number of English settlers 
not unnaturally aroused the fears and jealousy of 
the Indians. The Wampanoags were faithful to their 
treaty made with the Pilgrims; the Narragansetts 
The Pequot wcrc held in check by Roger Williams, who 
^" risked his life to save his former Puritan 

persecutors; but to the west of the Narragansetts 
were the Pequot s, a powerful tribe which began to 
capture, torture, and kill the whites in the outlying 
settleraents. After some unsuccessful attempts to 
subdue the Indians, the whites made a more deter- 
mined effort in the spring of 1637 under Captains 
Mason and Underhill. This time the English were 
well led and by forced marches surprised the Pequots 
in their great fort on the Mystic River. The en- 

^ To the teacher : Taken together with the idea of self- 
government^ as opposed to outside interference, these views of 
the fo7-m of government^ first, within the colonies, and, secondly, 
within the States and the Federal Union, embrace the basic prin- 
ciples underlying" our development as a nation, and the measure 
of our gTeatest divisions in political opinion. In a sense, this 
discussion between the followers of Winthrop and of Hooker 
continued between Hamilton and Jefferson and their supporters, 
and, in a more general way, it has appeared in arguments of 
political leaders and parties from the foundation of the first 
colonies to the present time. In the United States, the Hooker- 
Jeffersonian ideas are openly triumphant; nevertheless, a large 
number of able men uphold, less openly, perhaps, the political 
tenets of Winthrop and Hamilton. Either side points to the 
failures of the other and both boast of the achievements of their 
respective leaders and ])()licies. 



BEGINNINGS OF THE SLAVE TRADE 49 

trances were blocked, the wigwams set on fire ; and 
of several hundred trained warriors, only five 
escaped. Those of the Pequot tribe not in the fort 
were cut off in attempting to flee westward. So 
complete a victory amazed the other Indian tribes, 
and no further attacks were made on the whites for 
nearly half a century. 

After the Pequot war, a number of the captured 
Indian warriors were shipped from the New England 
colonies and sold as slaves in the West Indies, where 
most of them perished miserably in the unaccustomed 
heat of the tropics. The women and children were 
held in servitude at home. As early as 1636, the ship 
Desire was built at Marblehead, Massachu- 

, , p ,1 i? • 1 Beginnings 

setts, tor the purpose or carrymg on a slave of the slave 
trade in negroes captured or bought on the 
coast of Africa. These negroes were, in some in- 
stances, brought to New England ; but, for the most 
part, they were sold in the West Indies or in the 
English colonies in the south. This slave trade soon 
became as profitable to New Englanders engaged in 
it as the raising of tobacco to Virginians, and it 
continued to thrive for nearly two hundred years. 
The Puritan leaders sought to justify a traffic which 
we now should consider very wrong on the ground 
that the negroes, being not only heathen, but savages 
and often cannibals, were greatly benefited by a 
change to a very much better condition of servitude 
under civilized masters and Christian influences. 

In their eager haste to establish themselves in the 
new country, the colonists did not fail to provide for 
4 



50 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION 



the education of their children. It was not long 
Education; before all the large townships had schools, 
Ha°vir"d °^ ^^^^ laws wcrc made establishing systems of 
University education. In 1636, a school was begun at 
Newtown. Endowed two years later by John 
Harvard, the school became Harvard University, 
which has the distinction, in addition to its renown 




fftiiTfiriu 



OLD HARVARD COLLEGE (from etching by Paul Revere) 

The oldest existing educational institution in the United States; founded at 
New Towne (afterwards Cambridge), Mass., for the purpose of educating the "Eng- 
lish and Indian youth in knowledge and godliness." It received its first special 
endowment in 1638, and the college was opened soon afterwards. Its first class of 
nine members was graduated in 1642. 

as a centre of higher education, . of being the oldest 
existing institution of learning in the United States. 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 
It is interesting to recall how many of the early expeditions 
of importance in the history of America were by chance thrown 
If the out of their prescribed courses. For example, contraiy 

original to his plans, Columbus dnfted several hundred miles to 

Pilgrims had the south ; the "lost colony" at Roanoke Island in- 
been carried tended to settle in the Chesapeake ; the Jamestown 
°" * colonists intended to settle at Roanoke Island; and the 

Pilgrim Fathers were turned off their course by stormy weather. 
Had the Pilgrims landed just south of the Hudson, they might 
have fallen into a controversy Avith the Dutch, who had established 
trading jiosts in that neighborhood. 



The 
communal 



FIRST THANKSGIVING DAY 51 

The Pilgrim colony of the Mayflower consisted of 102 per- 
sons, one of whom died in mid-ocean. The number, Oceanus 
however, remained the same, for on the voyage a child Hopkins 
was born to Stephen and Elizabeth Hopkins, who was aptly 
named Oceanus. 

As John Robinson remained in Holland, William Brewster 
became the spiritual leader of the Pilgrims in America. William 
Bradford was their historian and gives an interesting account of 
the failure of the communal system, which the managers of both 
the Jamestown and the Plymouth colonies attempted to force 
ui)on the settlers. Bradford writes that after he had, 
in 1G23, done away with the system of holding prop- 
ei-ty in common, and had " assigned to every family a system, not 
parcel of land," a new spirit was shown by the settlers. ^Jj® settlers. 
He adds that all hands became very industrious and early failure 
" more corn was planted than othei-wise would have 
been by any means the Govenior or any other could use." All went 
willingly into the field to work, whereas many had hitherto com- 
plained of weakness or inability. He further writes that experience 
with the communal system, ^' tried sundry years, and that amongst 
godly and sober men, showed clearly the vanity of a system which 
was found to breed much confusion and discontent.^' 

Captain John Smith offered to guide the Pilgrim Fathers to 
thQ New World; the Pilgidms, however, did not accept his offer. 
Smith told the story, in part, as follows : " Some hundred of 
your Brownists of England, Amsterdam, and Leyden, „ . . 
went to New Plimouth, whose humorous ignorances Smith's offer 
caused them, for more than a year to endure a wonder- to guide the 
f ul deal of misery, with an infinite patience ; saying my 
books and maps were much better cheap [cheaper] than my self to 
teach them, . . . Such humorists will never believe well, till they 
be beaten with their own rod." ' 

At the present time, the President of the United States 
sets apart one day in every year for " thanksgiving." pjj-gt 
This is a national " feast-day," and has come down Thanks- 
to us from the first thanksgiving proclamation issued giving ay 
by Governor Bradford after the crops were gathered in 1621. 

' Separatists were sometimes called " Brownists " after the 
name of one of their leaders. " Humorists " is here used in the 
old sense of "persons having humors, or distempers; fanatics." 



52 ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

The Pilgrims were a very serious people and did not wish to 
indulge in celebrations of the old feast days of the church and 
the people of England. But newcomers to the " plantation " did 
not always agree with these views; so that at Christmas, 1621, 
some of the later arrivals infomied Governor Bradford that it 

was against their conscience to work on that day. Brad- 
game^ofblu "^^^'^^ replied that if they thought it wi'ong to work, he 

would not compel them " till they w^ere better in- 
fomied." But when Bradford and the first colonists returned from 
their work, they found the newcomers " pitching the bar " and play- 
ing at ball and " like sports." Bradford promptly " took away 
their implements " and told them that it was against his conscience 
" that they should play and others work " ; that if they wished to 
make the keeping of the day " a matter of devotion, let them keep 
to their houses ; but there should be no gaming or revelling in the 
streets." It Ls needless to say that the ball game the colonists were 
playing was not much like our so-called " national sj^ort " to-day ! 
But such as it was, it seems to have been stopped for a long time ; 
for the Governor writes many years later : " Since which time 
nothing hath been attempted that way, at least openly." 

When the settlement was small and weak, Canonicus, chief 
of the Narragansetts, sent Governor Bradford a bundle of arrows 
tied together with a snake skin, which was the Indian way of 

threatening war. Bradford returned the skin filled 
^^d°«!^^^ with powder and shot to show that he w^as ready for 
snake skin battle if the NaiTagansetts wished to fight. At the 

same time, he sent word that there should be no fight 
between neighbors who had no cause for quarreling, and Canonicus 
was accordingly persuaded that peace was the better policy. 

In New England, the year 1636 was crowded with notable 

events. It marked the beginning's of the colonies of Rhode 

1636 T^^^^^^^ ^^^^ Connecticut ; the Pequot war began in that 

in New year, and war was threatened with the mother country ; 

England definite plans were made for education, and Hai'\^ard 

University was founded ; the same year saw also the 

basis laid for the African slave trade of the New England colonies. 

. In 1639 the fii^t printing press in the English 

ing press, colonies was set up at Cambridge; the first volume 

and first printed on it was the Bay Psalm Book, issued in 1640. 

See illustration, p. 47. 
For English dates see end of Chapters 11 and IV. 



CHAPTER IV 



Early Histoey of Middle and Southern Colonies; 
THE Story of Virginia and New England Con- 
tinued TO Period of Struggle with New France 

Beginnings of the Middle Colonies. — We have fol- 
lowed the begimiings of the first two English colonies 
and have seen the Plymouth and Massaclmsetts Bay 
settlements invade the land claimed by the Dutch in 
western New England. We now 
turn to the Dutch settlement at the 
mouth of the Hudson. 

After the discoveries of John 
Cabot, the Englisli held to their 
claims to the Atlantic coast ; but, be- 
fore they could establish themselves • 
from Jamestown northward, the 
Dutch had begun a fur trade with 
the Indians. In 1609, an English- 
man, commanding a single small 
vessel in the service of the Dutch East India Com- 
pany, sailed into the harbor where to-day the great- 
est city of the world carries on its trade 
with every nation. The Englishman was and New 
Captain Henry Hudson, and his ship was 
called the Half Moon. He sailed up the river which 
bears his name in an effort to find a route to Asia. 
The effort was, of course, a failure, and he returned 
to the Netherlands with a boat-load of furs obtained 
from the Indians of the Hudson Valley. 

53 




DUTCH COSTUMES OF 
NEW NETHERLAND 



54 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Although trading posts were soon thereafter 
established by the Dutch, actual settlement did not 
begin till 1623, a few years after the coming of the 
Pilgrims. The land claimed by the Dutch was called 
New Netherland, and colonization followed under the 
direction of the Dutch West India Company. Al- 
though the fur trade flourished, the colony itself 
did not grow as rapidly as those of the English on 
either side. Consequently, in order to help settle- 
ment, the Dutch West India Company offered to give 
a large grant of land to any one who was able to get 
fifty persons to go with him to live as tenants on his 
estate. The owners of these estates were cjalled 
^'patroons," and the chief Dutch settlement on 
Manhattan Island was called New Amsterdam. 

The government set up by the Dutch in New 
Netherland was unlike that of the English colonies. 
The patroons had many privileges, but there was 
little self-government by the people ; and the gover- 
nor appointed by the West India Company had almost 
Dutch gov- absolute control of the colony. The settlers 
customs had no House of Burgesses, as in Virginia, 
or town meetings, as in New England. The Dutch 
settlers wished to lead quiet, peaceful lives, while 
their wives prided themselves on their wonderfully 
clean-scoured homes and their good cooking. Their 
goveniors, however, caused much trouble and were, 
as a rule, men of poor judgment. One of them, 
William Kieft, provoked several attacks on the part 
of the Indians. 

Under Peter Stuyvesant, the last of the Dutch 



DUTCH GOVERNMENT AND CUSTOMS 



65 




56 



MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 



governors, New xVmsterdam was protected from the 
Indians by a high, strong fence along the line of what 
is now known as Wall Street. Stuyvesant was a 
hot-tempered old soldier who had lost a leg in fighting 




Governor Peter Stuyvesant teaiin<r uii Hi'' I'liiti- 
Amsterdani in IGOl. 



urrender New 



the Portuguese and Spaniards. He did not believe 
in any government **by the people'' and wished to 
rule with absolute power. New Amsterdam had a 
mixed population of many nations, yet he tried to 



BEGINNINGS OF NEW JERSEY 57 

prevent any worship but that of the Dutch Reformed 
C'hurch. Accordingly, he began to punish dissenters 
of all kinds, but in this he was over-ruled by the 
West India Company, which directed him to restore 
religious liberty as it then prevailed in Holland. 

The English, however, had no intention of per- 
mitting the Dutch colony to interfere with the prior 
claims of John Cabot. In 1664, therefore, New Amster- 
( harles II sent a fleet to New Amsterdam ^ew York,'' 
and caught the Dutch unprepared to offer ^^^^ 
effective resistance. Stuyvesant wanted to fight 
anyhow ; but the settlers would not uphold him, and 
New Amsterdam became New York, so named after 
the Duke of York, brother of Charles II, and after- 
wards James 11.^ 

In the same year that marked the capture of New 
Amsterdam, the English took formal possession of 
the country immediately south of the Hudson. This 
was made over by special grant to two English noble- 
men, John Lord Berkelev and Sir George Beginnings 

"' ^ of New 

Carteret. The latter had been the Royalist Jersey 
governor of the island of Jersey in the English 
Channel during the C ivil War in Britain, and the new 
province was named New Jersey. The governors, or 
proprietors, granted the settlers a large measure of 
the self-government enjoyed by so many Englishmen 
in the New World. 

Afterwards, the Society of Friends bought New 
Jersey and made a treaty with the Indians that was 

^ The Dutch regained possession of New York in 1673, but 
held it for one year only. 



58 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

kept with remarkable good will on botli sides. By 
1702, however, disputes as to land titles caused law- 
suits, and the province was given over to the direction 
New Jersey of tlic EugUsh crowu. The king appointed 
becomes a ^^^q govcmors f roui that time till the Revo- 
province lutiou, and the last royal governor was 
William Franklin. The latter was a son of the Ben- 
jamin Franklin of whom we shall read as a leader in 
resisting the attempts of king and Parliament to take 
away the self-government which most of the English 
colonies had enjoyed from their foundation. 

In 1638, a number of Swedes settled on the west 
bank of the Delaware River. Here they built a fort 
which they named Christiana, in honor of Queen 
Christina, the daughter of their great warrior king, 
Gustavus Adolphus. In 1654, Peter Stuyvesant came 
down upon the Swedes from New Amsterdam and 
New Sweden scized *^New Swedcu'^ in the name of the 

becomes 

Delaware Netherlands ; but, wdien Stuyvesant himself 
surrendered to the English ten years later. New 
Sweden became a part of the territory of the Duke of 
York. The latter sold it to William Penn, who called 
the territory thus acquired ^^The Three Lower 
Counties on the Delaware. ' ^ In 1776, these counties 
became the State of Delaware. 

In point of time, Maryland was the third colony 
founderl by the English in the New World. Like the 
Plymouth colony, it owed its origin to religious perse- 
Beginnings cutlou in England. In this case, those per- 
of Maryland gpcutcd werc the Catholics of England, who 
wished to worship in accordance with the ritual and 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 



59 



de- 



beliefs of the Church of Kome, the authority of which 
had been denied under Henry VIII, restored under 
Mary, and finally overthrown under Elizabeth in 1558. 
The Roman Catholics were restricted in many 
ways with respect to political and religious privi- 
leges ; so that George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, 
asked Charles I for a tract of land in northern 
Virginia. George Calvert, after attempt- ^^^^^^^ 
ing to establish a colony in Newfoundland, i634 
died in 1632, so that the task of colonization 
scended to Cecil, second Lord Bal- 
timore. In 1634, Cecil sent out his 
younger brother, Leonard, with 
about 300 settlers, to take posses- 
sion of a grant of land in the region 
north and east of the Potomac 
River, south of the 40th parallel, 
and extending westward to the 
source of the Potomac. Calvert's 
colony landed on the west shore of 
the Chesapeake Bay and estab- 
lished a settlement at St. Mary's. 




Avery's History 

GEOKGE CALVERT 



George Calvert, first Lord 
Baltimore, and founder of 
Maryland; he died in 1632, 
before the colony was es- 

The land they called Maryland, tabushed 
after Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. 

The colony was founded on the principle of relig- 
ious freedom for all who professed the Christian 
faith. Roman Catholics, Church of Eng- Religious 
land people, Puritans persecuted in Vir- liberty 
ginia, and Quakers driven from New England, were 
all free to worship as they chose. As all were wel- 
comed by the new colony from its beginning, Mary- 



60 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

land may be said to have led the Elngiish colonies in es- 
tablishing this advanced measure of religious liberty.^ 

From the first, the people shared in making their 
laws, and they soon demanded and secured the right 
to propose or originate measures of government. 
Political The Governors, or Lords Proprietors, as 
liberty ^j^g Calvcrts wcre called, were granted al- 
most royal powers. The Lords Baltimore were given 
the right to coin money, wage war, and even to con- 
fer titles of nobility ; and it was further declared in 
the king's patent that the property of the people of 
Maryland should be forever free from taxation by 
the crown. 

The new settlement aroused the jealousy of some 
of the Virginians at Jamestown, who believed that 
the Maryland grant infringed upon their charter 
The rights and occupied a part of their territorv. 

Claiborne ... 

dispute One of these Virginians, William Claiborne, 
had already established a trading post at Kent Island 
within the limits of Lord Baltimore's grant. Al- 
though Claiborne was driven out of Maryland, he 
caused the Lords Baltimore a great deal of trouble 
for many years. 

In 1649, the Puritans under Oliver Cromwell 
triumphed over Charles I in the Civil War in 
England ; and, in 1654, those Puritans who had come 
into Maryland set up a form of government under 

^ The Toleration Act of 1649 merely confirmed, by law of the 
General Assembly, the practices and purposes of Lord Baltimore 
beoiin at the founding- of the colony. It did not mark the begin- 
ning of religions toleration in Mandand. 



ORIGIN OF PENNSYLVANIA 61 

which the Catholics were oppressed. A fight took 
place on the Severn River and the supporters of 
Lord 'Baltimore were defeated. Cromwell, Puritan and 
however, restored Lord Baltimore to an- supremacy 
thority in the colony, and religious liberty was en- 
joyed by all as before until, in 1689, the adherents of 
the Church of England got control in Maryland, and, 
for a time, taxed all the people for its support. 

In 1681, the Quakers, or Society of Friends, under 
the leadership of William Penn, established the 
colony of Pennsylvania. In the Old World the 
Quakers had been persecuted for their re- origin of 
ligious and civil beliefs. Hence, like the vania 
Pilgrims, Roger Williams, and Lord Baltimore, they 
began to plan a colony of their own where they could 
worship in their own way without hindrance. 

To-day, any town or State would welcome a group 
of Friends ; but, in colonial times, these most peace- 
able people were regarded as very dangerous on 
account of their new doctrines. We may recall that 
the Puritans believed that they were the chosen 
people of God; and that, in the terms of the Old 
Testament, the heathen were their ^inheritance ' ' and 
could rightly be attacked, killed, or enslaved. The 
Quakers, on the other hand, held that all men were 
equal. They followed what they believed was a teach- 
ing of the New Testament that no resistance should 
be made even against an unprovoked attack. They 
would not, therefore, swear to defend the State in 
case of war. Furthermore, they offended persons in 
authority by refusing to honor titles, and they would 



62 



MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 




MAP SHOWING THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



FIRST SETTLEMENT, 1681-'82 63 

not remove their hats even before governors and 
kings. The Puritans had done away with nearly all 
the forms of the English Church; but the Quakers 
wished to do away with the regularly supported 
clergy also. That this persecuted sect should have 
secured a grant of land in America happened in this 
way. 

Charles II owed William Penn, the most noted 
of the Friends in England, a great deal of money. 
Penn suggested that the debt could be paid by a grant 
of land in America. The extravagant Charles II, 
who was always in need of ready money, liked the 
idea and gave Penn a tract of land of 48,000 penn's grant 
square miles, extending west from the Dela- °^ ^^^^ 
ware River. This he called Penn's Woods, or Penn- 
sylvania. Charles II liked Penn and frankly told him 
that the American savages would put a quick end to 
the Quaker colonists, if he did not provide a regiment 
of soldiers to defend them. But Penn would not 
accept so much as a single gun. He believed that 
even the savages would respect fair treatment." 

Colonists landed in 1681 at New Castle (Dela- 
ware) and in New Jersey. The next year, Penn pro- 
ceeded up the Delaware River and founded First 
the city of ^'Brotherly Love,'' or Phila- i68i-'82 
delphia. This city he had planned before leaving 
Englaiid, and so orderly was it in arrangement that it 
is said to be, from its beginning, the first American 

^ It may be wondered if lie knew of Bradford's relation with 
the Wampanoags ; the at least temporary effect of the marriage of 
Pocahontas; and of Roger Williams' treaty with the Narra- 
gan setts. 



64 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

city having streets that were straight, and not con- 
structed at random, as was the case with the older 
portions of every other large city in the East. 

At Chester, in 1682, Penn called the colonists 
together and drew up what was called ''The Great 
Law ' ' for the maintenance of peace and order. This 
"The Great ''Gri^eat Law" provided, 
^^^" among other things, for 

freedom of worship, in that no one 
who believed in God and lived 
peaceably and justl}^, ' ' shall in any 
wise be molested"; that every 
child, after reaching twelve years 
of age, should be taught some use- 
ful occupation; that the death 
penalty should be visited upon a william penn 

person not for almost every form ofF^i!^^\!S^ 
of law-breaking, as was then tlie JfJ^t tith rhe'docTnnl'of 

r^ , T-, •, • 1 I o the Church of England; on 

case m Great Britain, but lor account of ms religious con- 

-, , ■, T ±1 1 victions.heandhisco-relig- 

murder and treason only; and that lomsts suffered many trials 

and imprisonments in Eng- 

the prisons should not be gloomy ia>?d; he succeeded in es- 

^ o ./ tabhshing a refuge in 

dungeons scarcely lit for beasts, Americafor the oppressed. 
but work-shops and places of reform. 

Soon after drawing up ''The Great Law," Penn 
made a treaty with the Indians which was not broken 
as long as the Quakers were in control of the colony, 
Indian ^^ ^^r ovcr forty years. Apparently, he 

^'■^^*y had proved to Charles II the soundness of 

his belief that even savages would respect his un- 
armed settlement, if proper regard were had to the 
rights of the natives. Penn returned to England and 




INDIAN TREATY 



65 



died there in 1718. His colony, however, continued to 
grow and to attract many settlers other than those of 
the Society of Friends. By the time of the Revolu- 
tion, Philadelphia had become one of the most impor- 
tant cities in the English colonies and it became, also, 






PENN S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS 



This treaty waa kept with good will on both sides for many years. An en- 
larged picture of the wampum peace belt in the hands of the Indian is given in the 
chapter on Indian life and customs at the end of this volume. 

the meeting place for many notable assemblies, of 
which we shall read later. 

At the beginning of the Maryland colony, disputes 

arose with Virginia with respect to the invasion of 

the rights of the earlier colony. A similar dispute 

arose when Charles II made his grant to William 

5 



66 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Penn. This time, Maryland was tlie colony that felt 
cause for grievance, for the grant made to Penn 
invaded the territory of Lord Baltimore. After 
many years of argument, during which Penn was 
determined to maintain his outlet to the ocean, a 
boundary line was marked off by two surveyors 
Mason and named Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. 
Line This line came to be known as Mason and 

Dixon's Line, and the latter name may have given 
the term ^' Dixie/' often applied to the southern 
section of the present Union. 

Establishing the Southern Colonies. — ^As seen in 
Chapter II, the attack by the Spanish Armada in 
1588 probably brought about the failure of the 
Roanoke Colony through cutting off its support from 
the mother country. In 1663, Charles II granted the 
country between Virginia and Florida to eight of his 
friends as ^^ Lords Proprietors.'"' The French, in 
the preceding century, had named the country 
Beginnings Carolina in honor of their king, Charles IX ; 

of North . ^' ' 

Carolina and tlus uanio was retained by the English 
in honor of Charles I and Charles II. Permanent 
settlement in the present State of North Carolina was 
begun before 1660 by a number of Virginians. The 
first settlers began to make homes for themselves in 
the territory lying between the Chowan and Roanoke 
Rivers. Later, these pioneers were joined by Quakers 
and other Dissenters who wished to be free from the 

* These Lords Proprietors were : The Duke of Albemarle, who 
had been the famous General Monk under Cromwell ; Sir William 
Berkeley, then Governor of Virginia ; the Earl of Clarendon, the 
noted British historian; Lord Craven; Lord (John) Berkeley; 
Sir John Colleton; Sir George Carteret; and Lord Ashley. 



"GRAND MODEL" VS. AMERICAN SPIRIT 67 

control of the Virginia church and government. In 
the development of the new country, the colonists en- 
joyed the freedom of frontier life, spending their time 
in hunting, fishing, and clearing ground for planting. 
Such a life led them to set a high value on liberty ; and 
those who, later, planned to limit this liberty found 
that they had to deal with a ' ' stubborn race. ' ' 

In connection witli the story of the colony at 
Roanoke we have seen how scientists and philoso- 
phers seemed to take an especial interest in the 
settlement of this part of the American coast. At this 
time, a famous philosopher named John Locke, upon 
request of the Proprietors, drew up a form of govern- 
ment for (^arolina that was intended to become a 
model for all others. His plan ijrovided liberally for 
the Lords Proprietors, and through them, for a sys- 
tem of American earls, lords, and barons, who were 
to own the land ; while the people living on the land 
and tilling it were to be their dependents The "Grand 
without political privileges of any kind. t'hJ'Am'erkkn 
But tJie si)irif of self-government seemed to ^p^"* 
l)e a part of the free air and generous soil of the new 
country; and Oarolinians from the first were free. 
They would have none of Locke 's system of govern- 
ment ; and, although an attempt was made to carry 
out its provisions, the ^' Grand Model" was aban- 
doned as a complete failure.^ 

The Albemarle and Cape Fear settlements (North 
Carolina) were united with the settlements on the 

* To the teacher: Locke's "Grand Model" for Carolina was 
a government for the people but not of, or by them. The nearest 
comparison is the system of " patroonships," established by the 



68 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Ashley Elver (South Carolina) under one governor, 
although each had separate governments. After 
1712, separate governors were appointed; and, in 
1729, the northern settlements became recognized as 
the Eoyal Colony of North Carolina. 

In North Carolina, the people showed their spirit 
of independence in almost constant contention for a 
greater measure of self-government than the pro- 
prietors were disposed to grant. In one case, the 
struggle for i)eo])le rose in resistance to the regailations 

self-govern- • .- ^ " t 

ment jDlaced upou navigation and commerce and 

put the collector of duties in prison. This was in 
1678. Ten years later, they drove Governor Sothel, 
a Lord Proprietor, out of the colony. 

The increase of white settlements in Carolina 
aroused the Indians; and, in 1711, the Tuscaroras 
began a series of attacks upon the whites. Outlying 
settlements were destroyed and the settlers tortured 
and killed. Aided by South Carolinians, the men 
of North Carolina began a war of extermination 
Defeat of the ^g^inst tlic uativcs, wliicli lasted two years, 
Tuscaroras niitil the wliitcs wcrc finally victorious and 
the Tuscaroras migrated to New York, where they 
joined the five Iroquois tribes, known thereafter as 
the ' ' Six Nations. ' ' 

Dutch ill New Netherland. Locke's " Grand Model " affords a most 
interesting' contrast to Penn's "Great Law"; also to Hookei^'s 
" Connecticut Constitution/' to the Pilgrims' " Compact/' and, 
indeed, to the Avhole si)irit of the English colonies, beginning- with 
the " Magna Charta of Virginia," as some have called the charter 
which called into being the lirst representative assembly of the New 
World in 1619. An intermediate ground may be seen in Win- 
throp's view of government by a few in Massachusetts. 



BEGINNINGS OF SOUTH CAROLINA 69 

North C^cirolina oli'ered its settlers an unusual 
variety of occupations. Besides the clearing of land 
and the cultivation of tobacco, already found so 
profitable in Virginia, the Carolinians raised cattle 
in the fertile bottom lands ; and the great industries 
forests of j^ine afforded vast quantities of lumber, 
tar, pitch, and turpentine. The climate was milder, 
and spring set in sooner than in the more northern 
colonies, so that the earlier fruits and vegetables 
made life pleasant and living easier. 

A settlement in what is now South C^arolina was 
attempted in 15G2 by French Huguenots under Jean 
Eibault. This settlement Avas abandoned three years 
later. Successful English colonization began in 1670, 
when William Sayle led a number of Beginnings 

of South 

Puritans to Port Royal, the site of the ill- Carolina 
fated colony of Ribault. Relieving that this was too 
accessible to attack by the Spaniards of Florida, the 
colony moved to a harl)()r farther north and called 
their settlement (liarles Town.^' 

From the first, the colony attracted immigrants 
and prospered accordingly. Huguenots fled thither 
from persecution in France; Fnglislimen came from 
the mother country and from the West Indies ; and 
some of the Dutch moved tliither from New Amster- 

*^ The decision seems to have heen a wise one. The Spaniards 
prepared to overwhehii the settlement at the stronger position 
at Charles Town, bnt the fortifications ai)peared too formidable 
and they sailed away without accomplishing anything. A few 
years later, when Lord Cardross and a nnmber of Scotch Covenan- 
ters attempted a settlement at Port Royal, the Spaniards defeated 
them and destroyed the settlement. 







MAP SHOWING EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN THE SOUTHERN COLONIES, INCLUDING A PART 
OF THE SPANISH COLONY OF FLORIDA 



INDIANS; PIRATES; FOREIGN INVASION 71 

dam, when that settlement was seized by the Duke 
of York. In love of liberty, these settlers were like 
their fellow-colonists elsewhere in America, immigration 
The history of the first half century of the government 
colony is a story of struggle with many of their 
proprietary governors, until, in 1719, the people 
petitioned the king for a change of government. 
This was granted them a few years later, when South 
Carolina became a royal province, and the governors 
were appointed by the king/ 

Life in the Carolina colonies was exceptionally full 
of action and adventure. Not only were there wars 
with various Indian tribes, such as the Tuscaroras 
(1711- '13), the Cherokees (1715), the Yamassees 
and others (1748- '61) ; but pirates and buccaneers 
of the kind of Captain Kidd and ''Black- Indians; 
beard ' ' infested the southern seas for many foreign' 
years. Moreover, the Spaniards were al- ^^^^asion 
ways on the lookout to surprise and capture Charles- 
ton; and, in 1706, a combined force of French and 
Spaniards attacked the city. Although the colony was 
suffering from a scourge of yellow fever. Governor 
Nathaniel Johnson and those of the settlers able to 
bear arms repulsed the invaders and drove them off.^ 

^ Four proprietary governors stand out in favorable contrast 
to the rest. These were: Joseph West; John Archdale, a Quaker, 
who succeeded, like Penn, in living at peace with the Indians; 
Charles Craven; and Nathaniel Johnson. 

' The Indian wars furnished the theme to William Gilmore 
Simms for his tales of frontier life, and the " famous fighting 
names " of South Carolina first became prominent at this time, such 
as, — Moultrie, Laurens, Marion, Middleton, Pickens, Barnwell, and 
others. 



72 



MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 



Sources of 
wealth 



The cultivation of rice was begun very soon after 
settlement. It became a leading industry, and many 
negro slaves were imported for work in the lowlands- 
The cultivation of indigo was encouraged by means 
of a special bounty granted by the British 
Parliament; but success in raising it was 
uncertain until Eliza Lucas, a young South Carolina 
girl, showed how the plant should be cultivated. After 
her discovery, the industry was 
a source of great wealth to the 
province until it was sup- 
planted by the raising of cotton. 
The last of the thirteen 
English colonies was founded 
in 1733, and was called Georgia, 
in honor of George II, the 
second of the British kings in 
the German, or Hanoverian, 
succession. For some time, the 
English had hoped to establish 
a colony on the still unoccupied 
strip of coast between the 
colony at Charleston and the 
Spaniards in Florida ; but emigrants desirous of 
going to ^Vmerica wished to go to settlements already 
established. Hence, it came about that 
Georgia owes her origin to the genius of 
a great man who had conceived a new plan to help his 
fellow-men. This man was General James Edward 
Oglethorpe; but, in order to understand his idea, it 
is necessary to review customs and laws of that day 
now happily in disuse. 




General James Oglethorpe, 
founder of Georgia. Like 
William Penn, Oglethorpe was 
a man of original ideas; and, 
like Penn, he carried them 
out, with a large measure of 
success, in America. Ogle- 
thorpe died July 1, 1785. - 



Beginnings 
of Georgia 



OGLETHORPE AND HIS GREAT IDEA 73 

It lias been seen that William Penn set up a gov- 
ernment which limited the number of death offences 
and i^rovided laws for the improvement of prisons. 
We have had humane laws for so long that we do not 
realize how harsh the old laws were. In the days of 
Penn and Oglethorpe, a person might be hanged for 
any one of a hundred or more minor offences against 
the law. Furthermore, a man could be thrown into 
prison for debt, even though he had fallen b(4iind in 
payment because of ill health or other mis- ogiethorpe 

and his great 

tortune.^ Oglethorpe conceived the idea of idea 
freeing this class of prisoners and giving them a fresh 
start in life in the New World. Other settlers, also, 
were to be welcomed; and he especially desired to 
offer homes in America to a number of German 
Protestants, who were then being persecuted in their 
OAvn country. Conse(|uently, Oglethorpe led over to 
America a group of families, to the number of IIG 
emigrants. These built a settlement which they 
called Savannah, eighteen miles from the mouth of 
the river of that name. For protection against the 
Spaniards, forts were immediately constructed, and 
a treaty was made with the Indians by which land 
for settlement was secured. 

Oglethorpe was among the earliest of those who 
opposed the African slave trade and slavery, so that 
he prohibited the importation of slaves into the new 
colony. But after some years' trial, it was found 
that Furopeans sickened and frequently died in the 

""Penn himself was thrown into prison for debts incurred in 
establishins: the colony of Pennsylvania. 



74 



MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 



low-lying rice fields of the South; while, under the 
same conditions, negro laborers thrived and were free 
Attempt to from the fevers to which the whites so 

prohibit 

slavery readily fell victims. In order to compete, 

therefore, with their more successful neighbors 






m 



South Carolina, the Georgia colonists removed 
restrictions against slavery. 

Although Oglethorpe did not believe in govern- 
ment by the people — and, 



OGLETHORPE 



:dimt 



in this respect, was out of 
harmony with the spirit of 
America — it was fortunate 
for Georgia that the leader 
of the colony was a skilled 
soldier ; for it was not long 
before the Spaniards chal- 
lenged the newcomers to 
battle for their claims. In 
1739, therefore, the Span- 
iards prepared for attack 
with a considerable fleet 
and a large force on board. 
To the struggling little colony, this fleet must have 
seemed like another ''Invincible Armada." The 
Spaniards felt assured of victory, and had planned, 
after defeating the Georgians, to proceed to 
attack South Carolina. Oglethorpe, how- 
ever, handk^d his little force so well that, at the close 
of a struggle known as the battle of Bloody Marsh, 
the Spaniards Avere glad to retire; and, except for 
Indian attacks, which were often stirred up by the 



THIS REMNANT (S ALL 
!AT TIME HAS SPARED OF THE 
MjEL of the town of FREDERIC/1 
BUILT BY 

GENERAL OGLETHORPE 

AD. 1735 

AS AN OUTPOST AGAINST 

THE SPANIARDS IN FLORIDA 



From Avery's History of the United States 
and Its People 
Courtesy of The United States History 
Company, Cleveland 

Tablet marking the site of the fort at 
Frederica, a town planned by Ogle- 
thorpe, "with wide streets crossing each 
other at right angles." Oglethorpe also 
planned to have rows of orange trees 
along the streets. 



Spaniards 
attack the 
settlement 



INDIAN MASSACRE OF 1622 75 

Spaniards, the colony was thereafter in no serious 
danger from Spanish aggression/" 

Story of Virginia Settlements from Massacre of 1622 
to French and Indian Wars. — The first permanent set- 
tlement at Jamestown was just twelve years old in 
1619, when we left Virginia to tell about the coming 
of the Pilgrims to New England and the beginnings 
of the other English colonies. The peace with the 
Indians which followed the marriage of Pocahontas 
lasted for several years and lulled the colonists into a 
feeling of security. But no natives of North America 
were more cunning and treacherous than the power- 
ful Algonquin tribes of Virginia. Opechancanough, 
an old man, succeeded his brother Powhatan, the 
father of Pocahontas. Opechancanough Indian 
hated the white invaders of his country with 1622 
a deadly hatred. Knowing their superiority in open 
battle, he determined to surprise the scattered 
planters in their homes and exterminate them. Ac- 
cordingly, he sent many of his savage warriors into 
the settlements, where they w^ere entertained by the 
planters. Upon the morning of April 1, 1622, the day 
fixed by Opechancanough for the massacre, the 
slaughter began in hundreds of homes at once. The 
* ^friendly'' Indians who had sought shelter with the 
settlers the night before now arose to kill them at 

" Noteworthy in Georgia history was the effort made by John 
Wesley to convert the Indians to Christianity, He returned to 
England and began the great religions movement which led to the 
founding of the Methodist church. Wesley was followed by the 
noted Methodist leader, George Whitefield, who traveled and 
preached in all the colonies. 



70 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

their morning meal or at their work in house or field. 
Men, women, and children were alike slaughtered; 
and perhaps few or none would have escaped, had it 
not heen for warning sent to some of the colonists by 
Chanco, an Indian convert to Christianity, and by 
natives of the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake. ^^ 

The Virginia colony by this time was strong 
enough to stand this blow. Although about half the 
Vengeance settlors woro slaiu, the survivors attacked 
English the Indians with vigor and success until 
Opechancanough humbly sued for peace, and the final 
effect of the massacre was an extension of territory 
open to settlement.^ ^ 

During the Civil War in England (1642 to 1649), 
Attitude of the colonists of Virginia were inclined to 
t^owlrds^"^ side with Charles I against Cromwell and 
m^thlV *^^ ^^^^ Parliamentary party. At the same time, 
country ^\^q Virginians resisted royal authority 

whenever the king's governors attempted to interfere 
with their exercise of self-government. One of these 



" The Indians on the east bank of the Chesapeake, the present 
" Eastern Shore " of Virginia and Maryland, were of a remark- 
ably peaceful nature. They feared the Powhatans and paid them 
a kind of tribute; but they were separated by the broad waters of 
the Chesa]:)eake from the savage wars of the inland tribes. The 
fertility of the soil of the " Shore," the abundance of fish and 
game, as well as the milder climate, made milder natures. Their 
principal chieftain of early colonial days, Debedeavon, was called 
by the English " The Laughing King." 

" Opechancanough planned a second great massacre in 1G44. 
At that time, he is said to have been 100 years old. He was 
captured and slain; his warriors were defeated; and their villages 
were destroved. 



IMMIGRATION OF THE CAVALIERS 



77 



governors, John Harvey, irritated the colonists so 
much that they deposed him and sent him back to 
Charles I in care of two members of the House of 
Burgesses; and the fact that the king arrested the 
Burgesses and restored Harvey did not lessen the 
spirit of liberty in the colony. 




Goodrich's.Great Events of American History 

THE "aged chief" OPECHANCANOUGH BEING BORNE IN A LITTER TO THE LAST GREAT 
MASSACRE OF THE WHITE SETTLERS IN VIRGINIA, 1644 

The triumph of the Puritan, or ParUamentary, 
party in Great Britain caused a great many of the 
* ^ Cavaliers, ' ' as some of the adherents of the king 
were called, to emigrate to Virginia. Pos- immigration 
sibly, Cromwell was as glad to see the cavaiiers 
Cavaliers leave Old England as Charles I had been 
when many of the Puritans departed for New Eng- 
land. In both cases, ^'England's loss was America's 



78 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

gain.'^ Among the names of Cavalier families who 
came to Virginia at this time, we find those of Wash- 
ington, Madison, Monroe, Tyler, Marshall, Randolph,- 
and many others that were destined to take a splen- 
did part in shaping the beginnings of a great free 
Republic. 

In each colony, we find that the people were not 
all devoted to freedom and self-government. Some 
would ally themselves with a tj^rannical governor 
and, for a time, succeed in depriving the people of 
some of their privileges. Such was the case in 
Virginia under Charles II, the Stuart king to whom 
Berkeley's tlic tliroue had becu restored in 1660 after 
Virginia tile pcriod of the "Protectorate" under 
Oliver (^romwell and his son Richard. Charles II re- 
appointed Sir William Berkeley to the governorship 
of Virginia and ill repaid the loyalty of "Old Do- 
minion," as he called the colony, by giving to his 
court favorites monopolies or special trading privi- 
leges in Virginia products. Berkeley and his Coun- 
cil tried in every way to hinder free expression of 
political opinion on the part of the people ; and, fear- 
ing injury to their fur trade, refused to give the out- 
lying settlements protection against Indian attacks. 

At last, the settlers could stand these outrages no 
longer. Under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon, 
and without the permission of Governor Berkeley, 
Bacon's ^lic ludiaus wcrc attacked and defeated. 
Rebellion Govcmor Berkeley promptly declared 
Bacon a rebel and an outlaw; but the planters met at 
Williamsburg and, after debating the question the 




Avery's History 
VIRGINIA COSTUMES OF 
COLONIAL TIMES 



BACON'S REBELLION 79 

greater part of a summer night under the glow of 
pine torches, resolved to support Bacon even against 
the king's troops. Thereupon, civil war broke out in 
Virginia, and no one knows what might have hap- 
pened, had not Bacon died of a fever in the midst of 
it. Bacon's death disorganized the 
'^ rebel" forces; and, as the Indians 
had been subdued, one of the special 
grievances of the settlers had been 
removed; so that the followers of 
^^the first rebel'' surrendered to 
Governor Berkeley. ^^ 

New England, from the Confedera- 
tion to French and Indian Wars. — Let 
US now turn to the story of the New 
England colonies. Here, with the exception of 
Ehode Island, the settlements very early formed a 
bond of political union, which largely owed its being 
to the possession of a common religion. In New 
England, at the close of the Pequot War, there were 

" It is interesting to note that Bacon's Rebellion took place in 
1676, one hundred years before that gTeater " rebellion " which led 
to the Independence of the thirteen colonies. Berkeley was so 
harsh in the treatment of the " rebels " that even Charles II 
rebuked him. He was recalled to England not long after the 
arrival of British troops sent over to suppress the " rebellion." 
In the struggle, Jamestown was burned down by the patriot party 
in order to keep the town from being used as a base by Berkeley. 
Two of Bacon's men set fire to their own houses. One of these 
was William Drummond, a Scotchman; and the other, Richard 
Lawrence, a scholar of Oxford. Jamestown was never rebuilt, and 
Williamsburg ("Middle Plantation") became the seat of govern- 
ment. 



80 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

&ve separate colonies : Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, 
Connecticut, New Haven, and Rhode Island. In 1643, 
New Eng. the first four formed a confederation known 
federation as ' ' the United Colonies of New England. ' ' 
The affairs of this Confederation were managed by a 
board, or council, of eight commissioners, two from 
each colony. Its puriDose was to provide better se- 
^^g^^^ ^ curity against the Indians. There- 
^^^ © fore, the Board was given the power 
to call out troops from the four colo- 
nies for their general defence. The 
Board also afforded a kind of tribunal 
for the settlement of any disputes 
that might arise between the colonies 
of the Confederation. This was the 

Averys History ^^^^^ ^^^^,^ .^^ ^^^, historV tO brlug 

PURITAN COSTUMES OF * , , 

COLONIAL DAYS about souic mcasuro of colonial unity ; 
but it is important to remember that in this first 
partial union, no powers were given to the central 
Board, or Council, to interfere with the local affairs 
of any of the colonies concerned. Each one was, as 
before, to continue in the exercise of its own, or local, 
self-government. 

The Civil War in England affected the history of 
both the New England colonies and Virginia (see 
p. 77), but in different ways. Puritan supremacy 
New Eng- in England brought about the emigration 

land under "^ ^ ^ ^ 

Charles II 01 many Cavaliers into Virginia and the 
II Southern colonies, while the restoration of 

the Stuarts in 16G0' drove many of the Puritans to 
New England. Among the fugitives in New England 




UNDER WILLIAM III 81 

after the Restoration were two of the judges who had 
sat in the court which ordered the execution of 
Charles I. The Puritans of New England protected 
these '^regicides,'' as they were called, from pursuit 
by the emissaries of Charles II. In addition, the New 
England colonies offended the king by their disregard 
of the restrictions upon navigation and by their per- 
secution of adherents of the Church of England. 
Eelations between the colonies and the king became 
more and more strained. Under James II, the charter 
of Massachusetts was annulled, and Sir Edmund 
Andros was sent over as governor of the whole of 
New England. 

The people of New England were very restless 
under the new governor, and war might have resulted, 
had it not been for the Revolution of 1689, when 
James II was dethroned and William III became 
king of Great Britain. Andros was promptly thrown 
into prison, and the old form of govern- under 
ment was restored. The Massachusetts wiiiiam m 
'Bay colony was enlarged by the addition of the 
Plymouth colony and the settlements in Maine; but 
the Puritan leaders were required to extend to others 
than themselves some share in the government of the 
colony. The governors were to be appointed by the 
king.^'* 

" At about the time of the Restoration, the }3ersisteney of the 
Quakers in their attempts to preach their doctrines in Massachusetts 
aroused the antagonism of the Puritan leaders. Many Quakers 
were severely whipped or otherwise punished; and four Quakers, 
one of them a woman, were hanged on Boston Common. 

In connection with religious persecution, mention may here 
be made of the Salem witchcraft delusion which prevailed some 
6 



82 



MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 



In 1675-76, the colonists of New England faced 
the greatest of their wars with the Indians. In this 
war, Philip, the son of the Pljanonth settlers ' former 
friend, Massasoit, was now their chief enemy. By 




Goodrich's Great Events of American History 

Attack on Brookfield, Massachusetts. Just as the Indians had pushed a cart 
filled with burning hemp and flax against the "garrison-house," a sudden shower 
put out the fire, and the Indians were driven away by a rescue party from Lancaster. 

this time, the Indians had obtained guns and ammuni- 
tion from the whites and had learned to use them; 
so that they had beco^ne a more dangerous foe than 

years later. In 1692, a score of persons suffered death before it 
was realized how foolish it was to condemn peojile on the charg-e 
of witchcraft, especially when these charges were made by chil- 
dren and, in one case, by an Indian servant, all of whom pretended 
to have had fits or spells east upon them by the so-called witches. 

At the same time, it should be remembered that in those days 
many people, both in England and America, believed in witchcraft. 
See, for instance, Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley Papers. 



EARLY LAND VALUES ON MANHATTAN ISLAND 83 

ever. Under the leadership of Philip, the various 
Indian tribes destroyed twelve towns, and forty 
others were attacked. Philip had planned a 
great leagaie of Indian tribes; but, fortunately, the 
whites discovered in good time that the strong tribe 
of the Narragansetts was plotting to join ^-i^g phmp's 
him. The settlers promptly marched ^^'■' ^^^^ 
against the half -prepared Narragansetts, whom they 
attacked in their great stronghold in the swamp lands 
at South Kingston, Rhode Island. One thousand, or 
nearly a third, of the Narragansett warriors were 
slain in this single battle. Finally, in 1676, Philip 
was shot, and his wife and son were sold into slavery, 
together with scores of others. The power of the 
Indians was broken, and they ceased to be a menace 
to the settlements until some of them, leagued with 
the French, attacked the English colonies in the great 
struggle for the control of North America, of which 
we shall soon read. 

Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

The Dutch bought Manhattan Island from the Indians with 

some beads and trinkets worth about $24.00. Compare this with 

the cost of a single exeat building- in the heart of New „ , , , 

^ ^ Early land 

York City to-day. In 1664, the rent the Duke of York values on 

was required to pay for all of New York was some Manhattan 

" forty Beaver skins when they shall be demanded or 

within Ninety days after." 

Women voted in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807. In Wyoming, 

women have voted since 1869. In Mainland, a woman asked for 

a vote soon after the founding- of the colony. This woman was 

Margaret Brent, who, in 1647, was " declared by the Court and 

Council to be attorney in fact of Lord Baltimore, in place of 

Leonard Calvert, deceased." As such attorney, Margaret Brent 

^^ demanded a vote and voice " in the Maryland Assembly of 1648. 



84 MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

She did not get the vote she asked for; but, in 1649, the Assembly 
addressed a letter to Cecil, Lord Baltimore, in which was the 

From Avery's History of the United States and Its People 
Courtesy of The United States History Company, Cleveland 



SIGNATURE OF MARGARET BRENT 



following passage : " AYe do verily believe and in conscience report 
Margaret that it was better for the colony's safety at that, in her 
Brent hands than in any man's else in the whole Province, 

after your Brother's death." ^^\ 

It has been seen that the first Swedes settled on the Delaware 
River in 1638. Over two centuries later, the immigration of 
Swedish Swedes to the United States became an important 

immigration factor in the development of the great farming region 
of the Northwest. 

Penn wished to call his colony New Wales, after the prece- 
dents of New England, New York, and New Jersey; but Charles II 
Penn's name ii^sisted on Pennsylvania. Many Welsh names, such as 
for his Bryn Mawr, show an origin due to settlements by the 

colony Welsh. Germantown became the home of a number of 

Germans who secured a grant from Penn as early as 1684." 

How would you like to write an imaginative story about the 
fate of the " Lost Colony " of Roanoke Island? When Governor 
White went back to England, it was agi-eed that if the settlers 
Fate of the ^^^ ^ ^^^^ Island, they were to write somewhere the name 
"Lost of the place to which they planned to go. If they left 

° °^^ in distress, they were to write the sign of the cross 

under their inscription. There was no cross found. The search 
for the settlers was not as thorough as it might have been, for 

" The quotations are copied from the tablet, erected in 1915, 
at the Margaret Brent School in Baltimore, Maryland. 

" The study of the names of places in the United States offers 
an extremely interesting sidelight on American history. 



ELIZA LUCAS 85 

Governor White Avas not in control of tlie rescne exi^edition. The 
belief has been strong in North Carolina that the names and cus- 
toms of these settlers have been preserved in the descendants of 
the Indians of Robeson County, and it is believed by many that the 
settlers of the " Lost Colony " intermingled with the inland natives- 

The attempted settlement of Jean Ribault, 15G2-'G5, is inter- 
esting to us in many ways. After three years in America, the 
colonists built a vessel, the first constructed on the coast of North 
America, in order to return to France. The vessel was small and 
leaked terribly, and the sails were made from bed clothing. After 
frightful sufferings, the survivors reached England. They told 
stories of the wonders of the American coast, and ^j^^ French 
showed pictures of Indians and American animals and colony at 
plants. These were drawn by a French artist of the ^°^* Royal 
Ribault company by the name of Le Moyne. In the course of time, 
the stories doubtless aroused the especial interest of Walter Raleigh, 
and the pictures may have led to the appointment of the artist, 
John White, as governor of the Roanoke expedition. 

Eliza Lucas, mentioned on p. 72, is one of the most inter- 
esting characters in American history. When she was but sixteen 
years old, her soldier father, called to the West Indies, left her 
in charge of three great plantations near Charleston. In 1740, 
she wrote to a friend : " Lest you should imagine it too burden- 
some to a girl at my early time of life, give me leave to assure 
you I think myself happy that I can be useful to such a father. 
By rising very early [5 o'clock] I find I can go through with 
much business." Not only did she learn how to raise indigo, and 
thereby provide a great industry for South Carolina, the exports 
of which thirty-five years later amounted to over one _,.. _ 
million pounds, but she also set out figs, cotton, ginger, 
and other fruits and plants. She experimented with egg-packing in 
salt, established a " school for the little negroes," and learned 
French, shorthand, and music. Besides this, she acquired a good 
deal of knowledge of the business and politics of her times. She 
married Charles Pinckney and was the mother of the patriot 
leaders, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Thomas Pinckney. She 
died in Philadelphia, in 1793, and George Washington, then Presi- 
dent of the United States, was pall-bearer at her funeral by his own 
request, in honor of her life and services. 

There are any number of interesting stories about the early 



8G MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES 

settlement of the colonies. All cannot be given or even referred 
to in the text or in these sidelig-lits. Additional stories 
for reading ^^J ^^ supplied by members of the class from their 
reading in historical novels or in such books as : Hag- 
gard and Button's, "Indians and Pioneers"; Hart's, "Colonial 
Children " ; Lovett's, " Grandmother Stories " ; together with 
" Stories " of the different States, and some of the books on 
American histoiy in the Riverside Library for Young People. 

European Dates for Referexce 

1625: Beginning of reign of Charles I. 

1642-'49 : Civil War in England. 

164:9-'60 : Rule of Parliament and the Cromwell Protectorate. 

1651 : Passage of the first navigation laws. 

1660-'85: Reign of Charles II. 

16S5-'88: Reign of Jame^^ II. 

16S9 : English Revolution, and accession of William and Mary. 



CHAPTER V 

I. Struggle between Great Britain and France 
FOR THE Control of North America: II. Life in 
Colonial Times 

Rise and Fall of New France. — In the preceding 
chapters we have followed the founding and early 
history of each of the English colonies. The story 
has touched but little upon the growth in North 
America of another great power. This power was 
France. While the English were extending their 
settlements along the Atlantic seaboard, the Decline of 
French had established settlements and ^fs^e V^ 
trading posts throughout Canada. They ^^ance 
sought to extend their control southward over the 
great area west of the advancing frontiers of 
the English. France, under Louis XIV, had taken 
the place of Spain as the strongest power on the 
continent of Europe. Like Spain, she sought to 
secure large possessions in the New World. 

In 1608, one year after the founding of Jamestown, 
a little band of French colonists under Samuel de 
Champlain established a settlement upon the great 
rock of Quebec. From that point, French fur-traders, 
soldier-settlers, and Jesuit missionaries began to 
extend the French colonies and influence westward 
and southward until they clashed with the English. 
In this clash the Indians held, for a time, the balance 
of power. The French adapted themselves to the 

87 



88 GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 

usages of the natives and readily made alliances with 
the Indian tribes ; but, as early as 1609, they earned 
the enmity of the Iroquois by helping the Algonquin 
tribes in battle against them. This enmity 
of New of the ^'Five Nations,'' as the northern 
Iroquois were called, hindered the south- 
ward expansion of the French into New York, the 
control of which province was recognized by both 
English and French as being most likely to turn the 
scale in the struggle between them.^ 

At the time of which 
we write, the Alleghany 
Mountains formed a mighty 
barrier to the westward 
progress of English set- 
tlement. Five rivers cut 
through that barrier; but, 
for some time, the Hudson, 
with its tributary stream, 
the Mohawk, offered the 

AMERicI easiest way to the western 

lands. The ''Five Nations" controlled this Hudson- 
Mohawk region, and Governor Andros of New York 
saw the need of further strengthenino: the 

The treaty , . . o & 

with the early treaties with these powerful tribes. 
He, therefore, in 1677, called together 
representatives of the three colonies of Yirgiiiia, 
Maryland, and New York to meet the Indians in a 
conference at Albany. A strong alliance was made 
with the Iroquois against the French ; and this confer- 

* For stories of New France, see the end of this chapter. 




COSTUMES OF FRENCH SETTLERS IN 



FRENCH DEFEATED IN NOVA SCOTIA 89 

ence may be called another step towards united action 
against a common foe on the part of a group of colo- 
nies, the first being the Confederation of f onr of the 
New England colonies formed in 1643. (See p. 80.) 
War broke out in 1690. In Count Frontenac, the 
French and their Indian allies had an exceedingly 
able commander, so that the first seven years of 
border fighting resulted in disaster for the English. 
The latter sent expeditions against Quebec and Mon- 
treal; but, owing to the skilful preparations of 
Frontenac, nothing of importance was ac- ^ 

' ^ ^ French 

complished. On the other hand, many Eni>-- successes, 

' "^ '- 1690-1697 

lisli towns, such as Schenectady in New 
York, and Haverhill and Groton in Massachusetts, 
were attacked or destroyed by parties of French and 
Indians. No frontier settlement was safe. In New 
York, so successful was Frontenac that he broke the 
power of the Iroquois and forced them to sue for 
peace. The war, known as King William 's War, lasted 
until 1697. In America, the English had been worsted. 
In 1702, war again broke out in Europe, followed 
by war in America. Again the English settlements 
suffered greatly. The attacks of the French and 
Indians were made often at night and the inhabitants 
were either killed or carried off to be cruelly 
tortured. Again, an English expedition was defeated in 
sent against Quebec. This also failed ; but and It 
a force sent against Acadia was successful, 
and that province passed into the hands of the Eng- 
lish and was called by them Nova Scotia. A strong 
force of French and Spanish sent against Charleston, 



90 



GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 




CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG 91 

South Carolina, was defeated with heavy loss to the 
invaders. The French, therefore, lost in Nova Scotia 
and South Carolina; but they sent expeditions to 
make good their claims in the central west as far 
north as Detroit and as far south as Mobile. 

A truce which lasted for thirty years was 
arranged in 1713 between the warring nations, but 
the rival claims of France and Great Britain had not 
been settled ; so, in 1743, war broke out afresh. For 
a time, the chief centre of conflict w^as in the north- 
east. The French began to attack the English pos- 
sessions in Nova Scotia in an effort to retake them. 
In this they were unsuccessful, and the English 
colonists sent out an expedition under capture of 
William Peperell, of Maine, which re- i-o^^sburg 
deemed the earlier failures by the capture of the 
French stronghold of Louisburg on Cape Breton 
Island. This expedition was managed by, and made 
up of, New England militia and volunteers. Great 
was the indignation of the colonists, therefore, when 
they learned three years later that the mother coun- 
try had given back Louisburg to France in exchange 
for Madras in India. 

Peace between the warring powers was made in 
1748 ; but a few years later, the conflict in America 
broke out anew. This time it offered new scenes of 
combat, and a final decision w^as reached. The French 
were encroaching upon the claims of Pennsylvania 
and Virginia at the head-waters of the Ohio River, 
wdiere they were preparing to erect a chain of forts 
from Lake Erie southward. The colony of Virginia 



92 GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 

promptly took up the cliallonge. The first messenger 
sent by Governor Dinwiddle to warn the French had 
^ . ^ turned back, ^'afraid" of the terrors of the 

Major George ' 

Washington loug march throufirh the wilderness and the 

carries a 

message to prospcct of Indian ambush. Dinwiddie 
then selected Major George Washington to 
perform the difficult task. Washington was only 
twenty-one years old ; but he was already favorably 
known for courage, good judgment, and industry.- 
Although he started out in the beginning of winter, 
Major Washington successfully made the trip to and 
from the headquarters of the French, at that time 
within a short distance of Lake Erie. He barely 
escaped capture by the savage allies of the French on 
his return trip; and made his report to Dinwiddie 
that the French would not yield their claims to the 
valleys of the Ohio and the Mississippi. 

Governor Dinwiddie now prepared for action 

without waiting for a formal declaration of war by 

Great Britain against France. Among the colonies 

there was as yet no united action, even 

Dinwiddie - . -, r» i • i 

prepares for agaiust danger irom the French m the west. 

Dinwiddie wanted it; Governor Shirley of 

Massachusetts wanted it ; and Benjamin Franklin in 

Pennsylvania spoke for it. But the Quakers of Penn- 

^As a boy he had surveyed the estate of Lord Fairfax, which 
then embraced about a third of the western part of the present 
State of Virginia. He had done his work well, and, though a 
number of surveyors were employed for special work as the years 
went by, a noted lawyer said long af teiT\^ards that the onh/ surveys 
on which he could depend were those made by sixteen-year-old 
George Washington. 



THE FIRST SHOT 93 

sylvania would not approve of war measures ; Massa- 
chusetts was too far away; and the other colonies 
were not inclined to help.^ 

Major Washington was sent out again to western 
Pennsylvania, but this time he was accompanied by 
an armed force. The French sent out an advance 
body towards Washington's camp at Great Meadows ; 
but Washington did not wait for an attack, ^he first 
He chose forty men and, marching through ^^°* 
a heavy rain at night, surprised the French. After a 
short fight, the latter were killed or captured. Wash- 
ington had fired the first shot of a war which was not 
to cease until New France should be added to the 
British colonial possessions.^ 

New France had soldiers rather than settlers, and 
the government also had absolute power in directing 
military movements. Hence, the French could send 
men to the front more quickly than the English. 
Washington received no reinforcements and found 

^ The peoiDle of the colonies, especially New York, were then 
engaged in disputes with their respective governors. The colonial 
assemblies were inclined to hold np all war supplies, together with 
the salaries of their governors, until they were granted some 
measures of self-government which they demanded. 

* Washington and the colonial troops engaged in the struggle 
with France were to learn something of the art of war. The skill 
then acquired was to be pitted against the British empire; and 
France was destined to be their ally. Horace Walpole, the noted 
British author, said of this fight : "A volley fired at Great Meadows 
in 1754 by a young American from the backwoods of Virginia 
set the whole world on fire. Not only England and France were 
affected by it, but every country in Europe was touched, and it 
settled forever the supremacy of the English over the French 
on America's soil." 



94 GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 

himself surrounded by superior forces of the enemy. 
He was compelled to surrender, but lie had prepared 
Washington SO wcll for rcsistauce that the French 
su^r*render, thought it wisc to give him very honorable 
^^^ terms of capitulation. This happened on 

July 4, 1754. Washington's first campaign had failed, 
and he and his men returned to Virginia. The French 




Defeat of Major-General Edward Braddock. The British were massed in a 
narrow road and finally almost surrounded by an unseen foe. Braddock had four 
horses shot under him in an effort to save the day. Had Braddock followed the 
advice of Washington and tlie colonial troops, the disaster may have been averted. 

now established themselves more firmly at Fort 
Duquesne, on the present site of Pittsburgh. 

In the following year, reinforcements from Great 
Britain reached America. Major-General Braddock, 



FRENCH REVERSES 95 

one of the most famous 'British officers of that day, 
was sent over to . Virginia with two regiments of 
^^ red-coats" to drive the French from the Ohio 
Valley. Braddock, however, knew nothing about 
fighting in the backwoods of America, and Braddock's 
despised his colonial allies and the Indians ^®*®^*' ^^^^ 
for shooting from behind rocks and trees. He gave no 
heed to the advice of Washington ; and, not far from 
Great Meadows, he led his men into a French and 
Indian ambush. Two-thirds, or over 800, of the 
British forces, were cut down, and it was chiefly due to 
Washington that the remainder escaped. The brave 
but haughty Braddock was mortally wounded; 
and the French, for some time, held undisputed 
possession of the Ohio Valley. 

The French now fell upon the English settlements 
in New York. At first, they met defeat at the battle 
of Lake George; but, under the brilliant English 

. - reverses in 

leadership of the Marquis de Montcalm, New York 
they regained the ground they had lost and inflicted a 
series of defeats upon British and colonial troops. 
In 1758, however, the strong hand of the great 
William Pitt, appointed British Secretary of State 
in the previous year, began to be felt in America as 
well as in Europe. Pitt removed incompetent gen- 
erals and corrupt officials. One after another, under 
his energetic direction, the French strongholds fell; 
Louisburg was again captured; Forts French 
Niagara and Ticonderoga in New York fell ; reverses 
and Fort Duquesne passed into English hands and 
was named Fort Pitt. Even the great Montcalm was 



96 



GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 



forced to retire into what seemed to be the impreg- 
nable stronghold on the heights of Quebec. 

The capture of this ^^ citadel of New France" was 
effected by the youthful General James Wolfe, who, 
after a summer of vain endeavor before the high 
cliffs of the fortress, found at last a possible path 
by which to scale the heights. During the night of 
September 13, 1759, his forces passed the French 




THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM 



The Heights of Abraham, where the brave and able Marquis de Montcalm 
fell, together with the equally brave and daring General James Wolfe, September 
3, 1759. 

sentries and silently climbed the cliffs of the St. 
Lawrence until by daybreak he had formed his troops 
Capture of ^ ^^ battle ou the heights above. Here, on 
Quebec i]^^ Plains of Abraham, as the battle-ground 
was called, the last great fight for New France took 
place. Both Montcalm and Wolfe fell, mortally 
wounded while leading their men; one rejoicing that 



COMING OF THE SCOTCH-IRISH 97 

he did not live to see the loss of Quebec, and the other 
declaring that he died happy in the news of British 
victory.^ 

Western Expansion. — It must be remembered that, 
while the struggle with Prance was going on, settlers 
from the English colonies were ever pushing west- 
ward. They broke through the Alleghany barrier in 
places other than the Hudson-Mohawk 

n . Extending 

valleys; and hardy pioneers were soon the frontier 
blazing trails along the gaps made by the English 
Susquehanna, the Potomac, and the James 
rivers. Some of the westward-moving people repre- 
sented an overflowing of the original population of 
the English colonies; but a great number of these 
pioneers were ^ ' Scotch-Irish ' ' and German and Swiss 
emigrants. 

The term ^'Scotch-Irish" refers to Scotch Pres- 
byterians who, in the seventeenth century, had moved 
to the north of Ireland. Like the Pilgrims in 
Holland, they were not all contented in their new 
home. Thousands of them, therefore, 
emigrated to America. Especially from the scotch- 
Pennsylvania southward, they helped to 
extend the frontier of the English settlements. It 
has been estimated that half a million of these sturdy, 
thrifty people came to America between 1725 and the 
outbreak of the American Revolution. 

In addition to the ^'Scotch-Irish" immigration in 
the first and middle periods of the eighteenth century, 
there was another of Germans, second only in num- 

'' To-day, at Quebec, there stands a single monnment in mem- 
ory of both the victor and the vanquished. 
7 



GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE 




INDIAN WARS 99 

bers tO' that of the Scotch-Irish. Like the Scotch- 
Irish, the Pilgrims, the Quakers, and others, these 
Germans sought greater freedom and liberty in 
America: for their own country was 
harassed by war; and religious persecu- German 
tions, at that time common in all the Euro- 
pean nations save Holland, were added to political 
troubles. Some of these people of German stock 
settled as far south as Georgia and some in the 
Mohawk Valley in New York, but the greater number 
settled in Pennsylvania. Like the Scotch-Irish, they 
moved westward and extended the borders of civiliza- 
tion in America.^ 

This westward movement of the white settlers 
aroused the Cherokee Indians in the south, the north- 
w^estern tribes under Pontiac, and the Indians of the 
middle west under Cornstalk and Logan. After 
numerous massacres of the w^hites, the Cherokees 
were defeated by the Carolinians ; and the Indians 
stirred up by Pontiac met a disastrous defeat at the 
battle of Bushy Pun in western Pennsyl- Indian 
vania. In western Virginia, Cornstalk was ^^" 
defeated at Point Pleasant on the Ohio River in a 
battle that is of special importance because it opened 
the way for the settlement of Kentucky and for the 

^ The Seoteh-Irisli, the Germans, and other pioneers very soon 
began to turn their steps southward from the head-waters of the 
Susquehanna and the Potomac into the Cumberland Valley of 
Pennsylvania and Maryland and into the valley of the Shenandoah 
in Virginia, between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Mountains. 
For some reason, the Germans of Pennsylvania became widely 
known in the colonies as the " Pennsylvania Dutch." 



100 LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

control of the northwest by Virginia during the 
Revolution and, later, b}^ the United States J 

Life in the Colonies. — Tliroughout the preceding 
pages, we have seen how wonderfully the colonies 
were growing and how America w^elcomed the 
oppressed peoples of European countries. But the 
most remarkable thing about the colonies was their 
development of the principles of self-government — 
of government hy the people. They developed these 
Self- principles to a far greater extent than any 

government other people iu the world. This has already 
been shown in the story of the struggle of each of the 
colonies with its proprietary, or Eoyal governor. In 
our early history, the first united action on the part of 
the colonies arose not from any desire for union, 
but from their fear of a common foe. First, we 
have the confederation of four New England colonies 
against the Indians; second, the Albany conference 
of New York, Maryland, and Virginia, called together 
to make a firmer alliance with the Iroquois against 
the French; and third, the united action of all the 
colonies against British encroachments upon the self- 
government which had been so long enjoyed by the 
colonies. 

In the practice of the principles of self-govern- 

^ The whites eng-aged at Bushy Run were several companies 
of regular troops under the Swiss soldier, Colonel Henry Bouquet. 
These regulars, like those under Braddock, had not seen Indian 
warfare before. But Bouquet guarded against suiprise ; and after 
the battle had begun, he deceived tlie Indians by feigning defeat. 
The ruse threw the savages off their guard and they were badly 
beaten. 




Courtesy Macmillan Co. 

John Quincy dressed in the co,U,„,e worn by..^ 
SI,''rar."f'MfbK'^"^Jo[;n't'Snt'AXr'afte™arL the si.th President of 
the United States. 



102 LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

ment, therefore, we find the Enghsh colonies very 
much alike. In religion, occupations, and social cus- 
toms, however, there were sharp differences. Since, 
in many cases, the form of religion in the several 
colonies had much to do with the form of their gov- 
ernment; and, since the adherents of the various 
religions had been accustomed to fight over their 
Differences differences in the Old World, it could not be 
in religion expcctcd, f or cxauiplc, that such strongly 
Puritan colonies as those of New England would re- 
gard with favor the Quaker ideas in Pennsylvania, or 
Episcopal domination in Virginia. On the other 
hand, it may be easily understood that the Church of 
England adherents in Virginia were inclined to dis- 
trust the Puritans of New England. Happily, such 
prejudices between States and sections have long 
since passed away ; but the fact that this once existed 
has to be kept in mind, if we are to understand the 
early history of our country. 

The principal occupations and the manner of liv- 
ing varied in the different colonies. In New England, 
the settlers lived in closely knit settlements, and 
great attention was paid to gatherings of the people 
in church and town meetings. The people were 
largely engaged in agriculture ; but they often found 
Modes of greater profit in trade, commerce, ship- 
living building, fishing, and so forth. Because of 

the township life and because of the natural bent of 
the Puritan mind towards study and discussion, 
schools were more numerous in New England than 
elsewhere in America, printing presses more com- 



INTER-COLONIAL TRADE 103 

mon, and here were issued the earliest books and 
newspapers. 

Although all the American colonists had advanced 
wonderfully in the practice of democratic ideas as 
compared with such progress in the Old World, social 
distinctions were still observed in a w^ay that would 
seem very remarkable to us to-day. Pupils at 
Harvard College, for example, were not catalogued 
in alphabetical order, but according to their social 
rank or position in their respective com- gociai 
munities. In the south, the people lived far customs 
apart and devoted themselves to agricultural pur- 
suits, although the cities of Baltimore, Charleston, 
and Savannah were engaged in active commerce. 
Transatlantic vessels arrived regularly at smaller 
ports in North Carolina and Virginia and carried on 
no little trade with the mother country; for it must 
be remembered that North Carolina and Virginia 
were leaders among the colonies in population," just 
as New York and Pennsylvania are leading States 
in population and influence to-day. 

In colonial times, travel and trade were rendered 
most difficult by the wretched condition of the roads. 
Several days were consumed in getting to and from 
such important centres as Philadelphia and New 
York. Consequently, few of the people saw 
much of their fellow-Americans in other colonial 
colonies, and this fact hindered union or travel; 
united action. Paper money issued by the ^^^^^^^^ 
colonies varied in value, and coins of every nature 
were in circulation. Frequently they were clipped. 



104 LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

and many were cut in two. Tools, implements, and 
instruments of every kind were hard to get and when 
once secured, they were much prized by their owners.^ 
The young people who read this volume may feel 
that they have good cause, in some respects, at least, 
to be glad that they were not born and brought up in 
colonial days. The philosopher, John Locke, who 
tried so hard to prepare a "model'' form of govern- 
ment for the colonies (p. 67), wrote also a book of 
directions for bringing up children, and his 

Old views on . ^ ^. ? i i -i i p i 

bringing up mstructious sccm to have been widely lol- 
lowed. Locke thought, for example, that 
children should wash their feet, even in the most 
wintry weather, in ice-cold water, and that their shoes 
should be so thin ^ ' that they might leak and let in the 
water." He believed that children should not eat 
melons, peaches, plums, or grapes. Apples he ap- 
proved of after October. A number of very interest- 
ing books have been written describing the home life, 
the school life, and the hardships of colonial times.^ 

Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

Robert de La Salle was one of the greatest of the explorers 
of " New France." His discoveries and explorations covered the 

* George Washington and his companion, Christopher Gist, 
on their return from delivering their message to the French, con- 
structed " with but one poor hatchet " the raft on which they 
crossed the Ohio River just in time to esca]")e capture or death 
by hostile Indians. Old wills made careful mention of the 
separate articles of household equipment, down to skillets and 
frying pans. 

®To the teacher: Perhaps the most interesting series of vol- 
umes on colonial life and customs has been written by Sydney 
George Fisher and Alice Morse Earle. 



1 



DANIEL RAVENEL 



105 




Child Life in Colonial Days, Earle Courtesy Macmillan Co. 

This child, Daniel Ravenel, was born in South Carolina a few years before the 
birth of John Quincy's namesake mentioned under the foregoing picture. This stiff 
dress is described as "especially pleasing for a little child." 



106 LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

whole of the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley, from the source 
of the " Father of Waters " to the Gulf of Mexico. In 1669, he 
discovered the Ohio and Illinois rivers. Ten years later, he 

launched the first vessel ever seen on the Great Lakes. 
Loufsfina*"^ In 1682, he reached the mouth of the Mississippi and 

claimed all the g-reat central region from the Alle- 

ghanies to the Rocky Mountains in the name of Louis XIV, after 

whom he named it Louisiana. 

Pontiac (see p. 99) won many victories over the English 

just before the American Revolution, and it is believed that he 

had a share in the defeat of Braddock near Great Meadows. After 

the overthrow of New France, Pontiac resented the transfer of 

the western forts to the English and he was secretly encouraged 

„ ,. by French Canadians to resist the transfer. In 1763, 

Pontiac 1-1 n 

he organized a great league or confederation of 

Indian tribes. He besieged and captured eight out of twelve 

fortified posts. Among the four posts saved was Detroit. Pontiac 

was finally compelled to sue for peace, and he was slain by another 

Indian, bribed to kill him, it is said, by the promise of a barrel 

of rum. 

The stoiy told of Hannah Dustin affords a good example of 

the horrors of Indian warfare. In 1697, when Haverliill, ]\Iassa- 

chusetts, was attacked, Mrs. Dustin's husband was in a field at 

work. Near him were seven of his children. Suddenly, the Indian 

war-whoop was heard and he saw that the Indians had cut him 

off from his house. Seizing his gun, he mounted his horse and 

told his children to nin ahead of him while he held the 
DusSn. Indians at bay until they could reach a fortified house. 

The savages entered Mrs. Dustin's house, killed her 
youngest child, a baby, and seized Mrs. Dustin and her neighbor, 
Mary Neff. These two women and a boy, who also was captured in 
this raid, were given over to a party of twelve Indians. The boy 
knew the Algonquin language, and, on the way to Canada, over- 
heard the Indians discussing how they were going to torture their 
captives. The boy told Mrs. Dustin, and that brave woman planned 
to escape or die in the effort. Watching their chance, the three 
captives surprised the savages at night and killed all but two of 
them. They thus saved themselves from torture and death and 
retunied to the English settlements in safety. 

George Washington's older brothers were sent to England 



ANNA GREEN WINSLOW 107 

for their education. George was educated at one of the simple 
" field schools " then scattered throughout Virginia. He was care- 
ful in his studies and excellent in outdoor sports and exercisesl 
Before he had begun to go regularly to school, George 
often wrote to his friend, Richard Henry Lee. Here George 

is a part of one of these letters written when he was but Washington 
1 ^ at nine years 

nine years old: ^f ^ge 

" Dear Dickey I thank you very much for the 
pretty picture-book you gave me. Sam asked me to show him the 
pictures and I showed him all the pictures in it; ... I can read 
three or four pages sometimes without missing a word. Ma says I 
may go to see you, and stay all day with you next week if it be not 
rainy . . . 

" Your good friend, 

" George Washington. 

" I am going to get a whip top soon, and you may see it and 
whip it." 

Sometimes, we hear how foolish are modern fashions and 
dress ; but when we read descriptions of the dress and customs of 
colonial times, we cannot help feeling that fashions are 
less "foolish" than they used to be. Mr. Sydney fnTa'^J^ns^" 
George Fisher writes, in Men^ Women and Manners in 
Colonial Times, that Philadelphia was a great centre of colonial 
gjayety : " Nowhere were the women so resplendent in silks, satins, 
-velvets, and brocades, and they piled up their hair mountains high. 
It often required hours for the public drasser to arrange one of 
these head-dresses, built up with all manner of stiffening substances 
and worked into extraordinary shapes. When he was in great de- 
mand just before a l)all, the ladies whom he first served were obliged 
to sit up all the previous night and move carefully all day, lest 
the towering mass should be disturbed." 

The picture on page 101 gives the dress of a boy who after- 
wards became a noted man. No boy of to-day would feel happy 
in any such costume as that — but, in the matter of styles in wear- 
ing apparel, girls suffered more than the boys. In 
" Child Life in Colonial Days," Alice Morse Earle Green 
quotes from a description by Anna Green Winslow of Winslow and 
her party dress when she was twelve years old : " I was ^resg^ff^ ^ 
dress'd in my yellow coat, my black bib & apron, my 
pompedore shoes, the cap my aunt Storer sometime since pre- 



108 LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

seiited me Avitli blue ribbiiis on it, a very handsome loket in the 
shape of a hart, the paste pin my Hon'd Papa presented me with 
in my cap, my new cloak & bonnet on, my pompedore gloves, and 
I would tell yon they all lik'd my dress very much." 

Her hair was dressed over a hig-h roll, so heavy and hot that 
it made her head " itch & ach & burn like anything." Of her 
" headgear," she writes : " When it first came home^ Aunt pnt it on 
& my new cap on it; she then took up her apron & measured me, 
& from the roots of my hair on my forehead to the top of my 
notions, I measur'd above an inch longer than I did downwards 
from the roots of my hair to the end of my chin." ^** 

English Dates for Reference 

1689-1702 : Reign of William and Maiy. 

1702-'14 : Reign of Anne. 

1714-'27: Reign of George I. 

1727-'G0 : Reigii of George II. 

1 700 : Accession of George III. 

^° Suggestions for reading may be varied according to the 
needs of the class. There is no need here for repeating suggestions 
made in the text or foot-notes of this chapter and those preceding it„ 



CHAPTER VI 

Controversy between the Colonies and the Mother 
Country to the Declaration of Independence 

Parliamentary Taxation and Colonial Resistance.— 
The year 1681) marks a great turning-point in the 
history of England. It marks the final overthrow 
of the Stuarts and of their theory of ' ^ the divine right 
of kings.'' It marks, also, the beginning of the era 
when the British Parliament was to assert its ruler- 
ship at home and in colonial aif airs. In the 

^ . The year 

American colonies, the changes were not at i689 in 
once so noticeable. Whether the jDeople of American 
the colonies lived under charter control, or '^ ^^^ 
under a governor appointed by proprietor or king, 
they largely managed their own affairs through their 
respective assemblies. They did not greatly care 
whether king or Parliament ruled in the mother 
country, so long as they were let alone to govern 
themselves.^ 

From the first, we have seen that the settlers 
resented the arbitrary acts of James I and 

. The 

II and of Charles I and II. It was Parlia- navigation 

ment, however, that had in Cromwell's time 

passed the first of the series of navigation acts which, 

^ To the teacher : After the union of England and Scotland 
under James I in 1603, the term Britain or Great Britain is 
insisted upon by those who maintain that England does not techni- 
cally include Scotland. The latter less exact term is still the more 
popular one, however, and consciously or unconsciously, it is used 
to refer to the union of England, Scotland, and Wales. 

109 



no CONTROVERSY AMTH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 



re-enacted at different times, later proved such a 
grievance to the colonists. These acts required the 
colonists t(^ export what they produced on British 






ay|i V*5 



^T"! 




A colonial counterpane, made by Rebecca Rogers, daughter of one of the patriot 
soldiers of the Revolution under Colonel Elijah Clarke, of Georgia. 

ships, to sell the same to British merchants, and to 
buy manufactured goods from British merchants. 
The navigation acts, therefore, gave the British mer- 
chants a double monopoly : they limited the market 
for the colonies in both buying and selling. Trouble 



BRITISH ARGUMENT FOR COLONIAL TAXATION 111 

would have arisen at once between the mother country 
and the colonies but for the fact that these laws were 
not strictly enforced during a period of a hundred 
years. Great English ministers of state thought the 
laws unwise and even winked at the evasion of them 
by the colonists.- 

The war Avith France closed in 1763 in a way 
highly favorable to British arms. ^'New France'' 
in America had been added to the British colonies, 
and the latter were thereby freed from the menace 
of border warfare. But wars, whether successful or 
unsuccessful, are expensive, and Great Britain found 
herself burdened with debt. Her govern- British 
ment and merchants began to consider how cXidar ^°^ 
the colonies, which had so benefited by the taxation 
outcome of the war, could be made to pay a part of its 
expense. With this effort on the part of the British 
government, there begins a new era in American 
history — a twelve-year period of protest preceding 
the outbreak in 1775 of armed resistance to British 
authority. 

^ It is only fair to the government of Great Britain to remem- 
ber that throughout Europe the view then prevailed that colonies 
were dei^endencies under the protection of the mother country; 
and that, in return for protection or tutelage, they should be a 
source of profit to the mother countiy. The fact that the Spanish 
colonies had enriched Spain was constantly before the minds of 
the British merchants, many of whom had sunk fortunes in Ameri- 
can colonization and enterprises. The British regulations pro- 
vided, also, that the colonial products should have a monopoly 
in the British market. Furthermore, British colonial policy was 
more liberal than that of other European countries; so that, from 
a British point of view, the American colonists had exceptional 
privileges. 



112 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

111 the British ministiy, under George III, two 
men may be held chiefly responsible for the measures 
by which it was proposed to tax the colonies, and for 
the manner in which these measures were presented. 
These men were Charles Townshend and George 
Grenville. Townshend proposed, among 
British other things, that the colonies should be 

^^^^^ ^ taxed by act of Parliament instead of 
through the colonial assemblies; and that money 
should be raised for the maintenance in the colonies 
of a British army of defence/'^ 

With this end in view, Parliament, in 1764, passed 
a tariff law or trade tax which, although it placed 
a duty on a number of other i^roducts, became known 
The "Sugar ^^ ^^^^ Sugar Act. The tariff on sugar and 
Act," 1764 molasses was greatly reduced ; but now the 
king and Parliament determined that the tax must he 
paid. As the Act w^ould particularly affect the trade 
of the New England colonies, a meeting of protest was 
called in Faneuil Hall, Boston, before the tax should 
go into effect. The principal figure at this meeting 
was Samuel Adams, a member of a family which has 
been prominent in American history from that day to 
the present. Adams expressed the chief reason for 
opposition to the tax in the following words : *^ These 

^ To the teacher : It should be noted that the British ministry 
proposed that the colonial govern oi*s receive their ^lay from the 
crown. The latter would thus become independent of the colonial 
assemblies, which had frequently withheld the governors' salaries 
if the governors' acts were out of accord with the colonial views 
of what was right. 



FANEUIL HALL 



113 



unexpected Proceedings may be preparatory to new 
Taxations upon us ; for if our Trade may be taxed, 
why not our Lands? Why not the produce of our 
Lands, and everything we possess or make use of!" 
lie added that such action on the part of the British 
government overthrew the charter right of the colo- 
nists to govern themselves. 



r 
t 


■1 



FANEUn, IfAI 



Presented to Boston by Peter Faneuil as a market-house and a town-hall or meeting 
place. In 17G1 it was destroyed by fire, but was rebuilt two years later. 



At this meeting, Adams brought up again the 
idea of colonial union, wdiich had been urged by 
Benjamin Franklin ten years before during the 
French and Indian wars. Adams rightly felt that a 
united protest to the British authorities would have 
8 



114 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

more weight than the separate objections of the 
several colonies affected by each new tax.^ 

Just as the Sugar Act was about to go into effect, 
excitement in the colonies was increased by the pas- 
sage, in 1765, of the Stamp Ad. This Act provided 
that all public documents, such as wills, deeds, and 
mortgages, and even newspapers and pamphlets, 
should have put on them a revenue stamp varying in 
The stamp valuc f roui a few cents to fifty dollars. 
Act, 1765 Vehement protests now rang out from sev- 
eral colonies. This time Patrick Henry ' ' sounded the 
alarm bell" of protest in the Virginia House of 
Burgesses at Williamsburg. In his resolutions be- 
fore that body, he declared that only the General 
Assembly of the colony, together with the king or his 
governor, had ''the right to lay taxes and imposts 
upon the inhabitants of this colony. ' ' 

Protests just as determined and convincing as 
those of Henry, Adams, and Otis came from patriots 
in the other colonies. These protests resulted in 
further efforts toward united action by all the colonies 

* Prior to the jDassing of the Sugar Act, Massachusetts had 
been aroused to i^rotest against ivrits of assistance issued by the 
British Courts. These writs gave power to the British revenue 
officers to enter private houses in search of smuggled goods. They 
were eloquently opposed by James Otis, of Massachusetts, who 
declared in 1761 that it was an exercise of authority which had 
already " cost one king of England his head and another his 
throne." The writs were not enforced; but their enforcement was 
constantly threatened and this caused great irritation. In 1763, 
Patrick Henry, of Virginia, voiced a similar sentiment when he 
said that arbitrary acts by royal authority forfeited obedience on 
the part of the people. 



STAMP ACT CONGRESS 



115 



in protection of their rights. At the call of Massachu- 
setts and South Carolina, representatives from some 
of the colonies met in New York in October, stamp Act 
1765. The protest they prepared was New York, 
similar in expression to the resolutions of ^^^^ 
Patrick Henry denying- the right of Parliament to tax 
the colonies at all, although, at first, the colonies did 
not deny that the British government had the right to 
impose tariffs on foreign goods 
coming into American ports. 
It has been often said that the 
cause of the Eevolution was 
"taxation without representa- 
tion.^' This statement is mis- 
leading. The Stamp Act Con- 
gress of 1765 made it clear that 
it was the opinion of that body 
that the colonies could not be 
taxed in the manner proposed, 
unless they were represented in Bom in Massachusetts, 1725; 

-_,^ - . J T 1 n 1 J" graduate of Harvard; wrote and 

Parliament; but the resolutions spoke in defence of coioniai 

rights against Parliamentary 

also stated that it was impos- taxation; died itss. 
sihle for the colonists to he so represented. 

The resistance to the sale of the revenue stamps in 
the colonies was so violent that the agents appointed 
to sell the stamps dared not offer them. Parliament 
forthwith repealed the Act ; whereupon the ^gp^^i ^^ ^j^^ 
joy of the colonists was so great that no ^^^"'p ^*^* 
notice was taken of the declaration made by Parlia- 
ment that it reserved the right to tax the colonies if it 
saw fit to do so. 




JAMES OTIS 



116 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament 
passed what are known as the Townshend Acts. 
These Acts provided for special tariffs on glass, 
paper, lead, paints, tea, etc. The tariff on 
Townshend cacli articlewas, perhaps, a moderate one; 
but the fact that Parliament again insisted 
on its right to levy taxes and on using the revenue to 
pay the salaries of British officials in America roused 
the colonists to resistance just as in the case of the 
previous acts.^ 

Again, Parliament felt obliged to yield, and the 
new Acts were repealed. The tax on tea only was 
maintained. This tax was a very light one and the 
The tea tax, ^iiig and Parliament hoped that the colon- 
^^^^ ists would submit to it. In that case, the 

principle of taxation hy Parliament would he estab- 
lished. But the colonists were just as shrewd as the 

^ The colonists were further aroused and irritated by the quar- 
tering of British troops in Boston and the efforts of Parliament 
to force soldiers upon New York and other places. In January, 
1770, two days of rioting- folloAved an attempt by soldiei-s to cut 
down a liberty pole in New York. 

In March of the same year, a Boston mob threw missiles at 
British soldiers in front of the custom-house, daring the " red- 
coats'" to fire. The soldiers did fire and killed five of their assail- 
ants. This affray has become known as the " Boston Massacre." 
It served to arouse intense feeling against British soldiers and 
othcials. The soldiers, in this case, had great provocation ; and, to 
the credit of Boston, John Adams and Josiah Quincy publicly 
defended the soldiers when they were tried for their act. 

In North Carolina, on May 16, 1771, a pitched battle occurred 
between the Royal Governor Tryon and a band of " Regulators." 
Nine of Tryon's men and many of the Regulators were killed. 
The fight occurred on Great Alamance Creek, and is sometimes 
referred to as the " Battle of Alamance." 



TEA PARTIES 117 

British authorities and they determined to resist the 
tea tax, not because it was a hardship, but because it 
involved the principle of self-government in America. 
The tax on tea seems a very little thing; but it 
was a little thing that involved a great principle, and 
the way that the colonists met the issue illustrates 
better than anything else, perhaps, the spirit of free- 
dom that had developed in America. Parliament not 
— only had lowered the duty on tea, 

but it also had arranged that if the 
tea were bought from London mer- 
chants, the colonists could get it 
cheaper, even with the Resistance to 




tax, than it could b 



the tea tax; 
"tea 



bought anywhere parties." 
else. Shiploads of tea were then 
sent from Great Britain to leading 
PATRICK HENRY scaports lu tlic colonies ; but the 

Born in Virginia, 173G: i n j_-\ i ' iil ^ 

colonialleader in resistance pCOpie 01 tilC COlOUieS had OOUUd 
to Parliamentary taxation; .-. -. j i i n*iji 

as first Governor of vir- tliemsclves uot to Duy or drink the 

ginia, sent out George i , at -t^ i i t-^i -i i i 

Rogers ciaric to win the tca. At Ncw 1 orK aud Pliuadei- 

Northwestfrom theBritish. 

^i^d 1799. phia, the vessels bearing the tea 

turned back without unloading, and the London mer- 
chants thereby saved those cargoes. In Boston, men 
disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships at night 
and threw the tea overboard. At Annapolis, a num- 
ber of his neighbors compelled Anthony Stewart, a 
Maryland importer, to set fire to his own vessel be- 
cause it had a cargo of the obnoxious tea on board. 
At Charleston, the tea was seized by the citizens of 
that port and stored away, to be brought out some 



lis CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

years later and sold for the benefit of the State troops 
in the War for Independence.^ 

The British merchants who had suffered the loss 
of the tea stirred up the officials of the British govern- 
ment, so that the ministry resolved to proceed to 




THE BOSTON TEA PARTY 



more severe measures against colonists who de- 
stroyed private property and openly defied the acts 

*^ The emptying- of the tea casks into Boston harbor has gone 
doAvn in histoiy as " The Boston Tea Party." The Annapolis 
episode is known as " The Burning of the Peggy Stewart.'^ These 
were the acts of men; bnt the women of the colonies were just 
as determined as the men. One incident has been called " The 
Ladies' Tea Party"; for the London newspapers of the day re- 
jiorted that fifty-one ladies of Edenton, North Carolina, had 
ado])ted resolutions to abstain not only from drinking tea, but 
from using any British goods until the unjust taxation should be 
removed. 



THE "INTOLERABLE ACTS" 119 

of Parliament.^ That body passed, in 1774, what the 
Americans called ''The Intolerable Acts.'' These 
were: (1) The Boston Port Bill, which 

Tll6 

closed the port of Boston to commerce until "intolerable 
the tea destroyed there should be paid for ; 
(2) the Massachusetts Government Act, which was in- 
tended to deprive Massachusetts of the self-govern- 
ment she had so long enjoyed; (3) the Administration 
of Justice Act, which provided for the trial in Eng- 
land of all British officials accused of murder in 
Massachusetts; (4) an Act for the quartering of 
British troops in Boston; and (5) the Quebec Act, 
which was to shut off the western expansion of the 
colonies by including more of the territory west of 
the Alleghanies in the Canadian province of Quebec. 
Four of these Acts were aimed at the colony of 
Massachusetts. The British authorities knew that 
previous efforts to secure united action by the colo- 
nies had failed and they thought they could treat 
with Massachusetts separately. In this, they proved 
to be greatly mistaken ; for the other colonies forgot 
their former jealousies and declared that they ivould 
mahe the cause of Massachusetts the cause of all 
alike. The day on which the Boston Port Bill went 
into effect was made a day of fasting and prayer in 
Pennsylvania and Virginia. South Carolina sent 200 
barrels of rice to Boston; and George Washington 

^ It should be remembered that the destruction of the tea 
was one of a number of defiant acts. In 1772, citizens of Rhode 
Island shot a British officer on board the revenue vessel Gaspee 
and burned the ship. The Gaspee had been offensively active 
in spying out smugglers. 



120 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 



said: ^'If need be, I will raise one thousand men, 
subsist them at my own expense, and march to the 
relief of Boston/' 




TABLET KRECTED TO COMMEMORATE THE "LADIES* TEA PARTY' 



The colonies faced a serious crisis. Virginia had 
not been represented at the Stamp Act Congress of 
1765 ; but she now took the lead in calling a meeting 



ATTEMPTED ARREST OF ADAMS AND HANCOCK 121 

of what became the First Continental Congress. This 
Congress, including representatives from all the 
colonies except Georgia, met at Philadelphia, Sep- 
tember 5, 1774. It prepared petitions to be First 
sent to the king and to Parliament, in which congr"e^ss!^^ 
the members united in declaring the riglit petitions and 
of the several colonies to govern and tax resolutions 
themselves. Resolutions of sympathy for Massa- 
chusetts were passed, and it was agreed to urge the 
people not to buy or use British goods until Parlia- 
ment should repeal its oppressive acts. 

Beginnings of Armed Resistance. — In Massachu- 
setts, events were rapidly shaping themselves, and 
force was preparing to meet force. General Gage, 
in charge of the British regulars at Boston, was con- 
structing fortifications ; while, in the country around, 
companies of '^ minute-men" were forming. Early in 
the morning of the 19tli of April, 1775, Attempted 
General Gage sent a force of eight hundred s"m?ei°^ 
men to arrest Samuel Adams and John f^^^^ ^"^ 
Hancock at Lexington, and to destroy or Hancock 
capture munitions of war at Concord. The British 
attempted to slip away from Boston at night; but 
warning was flashed from a church belfry to Paul 
Revere at Charlesk)wn. Revere by one route and 
William Dawes by another, mounted their horses and 
set out to warn the minute-men of the country-side.^ 

Adams and Hancock were warned in time to 
escape capture. At Lexington, the British met a 

^ On the way from Lexington to Concord, Revere was cajDtured 
by British scouts; but Dawes rode on to Concord. 



122 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

number of the minute-men who had begun to gather 
there. Major Pitcairn ordered these to disperse ; but 
Lexington tiring began, and seventeen of the minute- 
Tvriil9r^' ^^1^1^ ^^'^1'^ ^i^l^^ o^ wounded. The British 
^^75 troops then hastened to Concord to carry 

out their orders to destroy the military stores at that 
place. They found, however, the people so thor- 
oughly aroused, that, after some fighting at Concord, 
a retreat was ordered. All along the route, the ' ' red- 
coats ' ' were tired upon by the Massachusetts minute- 
men, so that had not reinforcements 
and artillery come up from Boston, 
the entire British force must have 
been killed or captured. War had 
begun — not for independence as yet, 
but in the form of armed resistance 
to British authority. 

After the British retreat from 
AMERICAN SOLDIER Coucord, thc coloulal militia closed 

IN THE UNIFORM OF THE ' 

CONTINENTAL ARMY [^ upou Bostoii, wlicre tlie British 
troops were commanded by Generals Gage, Howe, 
Clinton, and Burgoyne. Two reports of the Lex- 
ing-ton-C^oncord fighting were sent to Great Britain : 

one from Salem by the patriot party, and 
conflict the other from General Gage at Boston. 
Great The proviucial report reached London first ; 

and Benjamin Franklin, American agent 
there, received, from people in England, about $1000 
(modern values), for the widows and children of the 
Americans killed. Gage's report, however, put 
things in a different light and increased the deter- 




EFFECTS OF THE BATTLE 123 

mination of Parliament and the king to put down 
resistance in the colonies. 

In the meantime, Ethan Allen and the "Green 
Mountain Boys" of Vermont seized Fort 
Ticonderoga, CVown Point, and other f orti- seized, 
fications on the New York border and sent ^^ 
their cannon and munitions to the patriot army in 
front of Boston. 

On the nig'lit of June 16, nearly two months after 
the first shots at Lexington, an American detachment 
under Prescott, Putnam, and Warren was sent to 
seize Bunker Hill on the Charlestown peninsula north 
of Boston. In the morning, the British 
awoke to find that their control of the city Bunker nm, 
was threatened. Howe and three thousand 
British regulars were sent forward to dislodge the 
provincial volunteers. The latter were poorly pro- 
vided with i^owder and shot ; but they were instructed 
to make the best use of what they had and to hold 
their fire until the British were close upon them. 
Twice were the British repulsed and sent back down 
tlie hill; but the powder supply of the Americans 
began to fail, and when the British charged for the 
third time, the Americans were driven off the field.^ 

Although it resulted in final defeat for the Ameri- 
can militia, the fight at Bunker Hill was helpful to 
the American cause in many ways. The Effects of the 
first repulse of the British regulars gave ^^^^^^ 
the provincials confidence, while it gave the "red- 

" The Americans fortified P>reed's Hill. At first, the battle was 
known by this name. 



124 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 



Meeting of 
Second 
Continental 
Congress, 
1775; 

Washington 
made com- 
mander-in- 
chief 



coats" a respect for iiitreiiclied American troops 
which they never wholly forgot. Moreover, the 
British loss in killed and wonnded amounted to more 
than twice that of the Americans. ^^ 

It is now necessary to turn to Philadelphia, where 
the Second Continental Congress had assembled on 
May 10. This time all the colo- 
nies were represented. The 
patriot party felt that they 
were fighting for their rights 

against British a u - 

thority ; but they 

wished still to remain 

loyal to the British 

hiuf). They simply 

denied the authority 
of Parliament to make laws for 
them ; and they hoped that the 
king would acknowledge this 
right and that British public 
opinion would force a change of 
ministry. George Washing-ton 
was a member of this Congress ; 
and, at the suggestion of John Adams, he was made 
commander-in-chief of the Continental forces. 

Washing-ton's appointment was made just before 
the Battle of Bunker Hill; and he hastened to take 
command of the troops besieging Gage in Boston. 
He found that his greatest task was to preserve 
discipline in the new army and to maintain an 

" The British loss in killerl and wounded was over a thousand 
men, 157 of whom were officers. The American loss was 449. 



\ 




SAMUEL ADAMS 

Born in Boston, 1722; was 
graduated at Harvard, 1740; 
a leader in resistance to rule 
of Parliament. The attempt to 
arrest Adams and Hancock led 
to the first bloodshed at Lex- 
ington. After the Revolution, 
he was, like Patrick Henry, an 
ardent supporter of State rights 
and was opposed to establish- 
ing a powerful Federal govern- 
ment. Died 1803. 



FIGHTING IN VIRGINIA, 1775-76 



125 



effective fighting force. Months passed without de- 
cisive action; but Washington finally seized Dor- 
chester Heights, south of Boston. Cannon 
placed on these heights commanded the up Boston, 
city, whereupon the British, recalling their 
losses in storming the American intrenchments of 
Bunker Hill, abandoned Boston <^- ^-'^- 

and sailed for Halifax. The 
British left Boston in March, 
1776; and in New England 
there was no further fighting 
of serious moment throughout 
the Revolution. The scene of 
conflict shifted to the middle 
and southern colonies, where 
the war was continued, with 
varying success, for ^ve more henry laurens 

QT'c! Bornin Charleston, South Car- 

years, olina, 1724. Merchant of London 

-r^ P ,T T^ • 1 ' 1 ^^^ Charleston; in England, in 

Bet ore the British gave up 1774. he advised Parliament 
-^ ^ -, . . f, . against Boston Port Bill; re- 

BOStOn, lighting Ot importance turned to south CaroUnaipresi- 

^ " P ^ dent Continental Congress, 

1777-'78; appointed, 1779, 
United States minister to Hol- 
land, but was seized en route by- 
British and confined in London 

both colonies, the patriot party L°iK'warstn"ef of '°;ea?yTf 
gained the upper hand and f^g- -^^ ^--^ «"^-- ^ied 
drove out the Royal governors. In Virginia, Gov- 
ernor Dunmore endeavored to rouse the Indians and 
the negroes against the colonists. To the 
negroes, he issued a proclamation in which Virginia, 
he promised them their freedom if they ^^^^'^^ 
would rise in insurrection. Dunmore burned the 
greater part of Norfolk ; but his forces were defeated 
at Great Bridge, December 9, 1775. 




had already taken place in Vir 
ginia and North Carolina. In 



126 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 

In North Carolina, as early as May, 1775, the citi- 
zens of Mecklenburg- County declared British govern- 
in North ment suspended. On February 27, 1776, 
Carolina ^^q patriot party badly defeated a large 
force of Tories at Moore's Creek Bridge. This vic- 
tory prevented an invasion of North Carolina by the 
British under Sir Peter Parker; for the latter had 
expected to join the Tories at Wilmington on the 
Cape Fear River.^^ 

In South Carolina, the patriot party, under the 
leadership of Henry Laurens and Governor Rutledge, 
acted promptly. After the victory of the patriot 
party at Moore's Creek Bridge in North Carolina, 
the first British invasion in the south was directed 
at Charleston, South Carolina. On Sullivan's Island 
in Charleston harbor. Colonel William Moultrie con- 
structed a rude fort made of palmetto logs. With 
twelve hundred men and about thirty cannon, he 
British calmly awaited the attack of the English 
Charleston! ^^^^ ^^^^^ scveral thousand men and over 
June 28, 1776 j^y^rQ hundred g-uns, although a former 
British officer of high reputation then serving in the 
Continental army predicted that the fort would be- 
come ^^a slaughter pen" in less than an hour. On 
June 28, 1776, the British fleet began its bombard- 

" The term Tories was applied to those Americans who re- 
mained loyal to the British government. In some of the colonies, 
they were sufficiently numerous to create a condition of civil war. 
Some of them committed outrages; and, after the Revolution, 
thousands of them were driven out of the colonies, although many 
of them would have accepted the new order of things in good faith 
and would have made good citizens of the Republic. 



SERGEANT JASPER 



127 



ment. For ten hours, all the guns of the fleet were 
fired at the fort and its defenders ; but the balls sank 
almost harmlessly into the soft palmetto. While 
Moultrie sat within, coolly smoking a pipe, the 
American gunners carefully used to best advantage 
their limited supply of powder, and riddled the best 




Sergeant Jasper replacing the flag at Fort Moultrie under the fire of the British 
fleet, June 28, 1776. In 1779, Jasper fell, with the flag in his arms, in the French- 
American attempt to take Savannah from the British. 

British ships. After Sir Peter Parker had been 
badly wounded and his flagship had been made almost 
a wreck, the British fleet and landing force withdrew 
in defeat, with the loss of a twenty-eight-gun ship, 
which the Americans burned. The result was a 
glorious victory for the colonial troops and it hap- 
pened just as the Continental Congress at Phila- 
delphia was deciding to issue the declaration of 

INDEPENDENCE. 



128 CONTROVERSY WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY 



"Sons of 
Liberty" 
Edmund 
Burke 



Governor 
Tryon 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

In the British Parliament, two of the most notable defenders 
of the colonies were Isaac BaiTc and Edmund Burke. The former 
spoke of the colonists in their resistance to the Stamp 
Act as " Sons of Liberty," an expression which was 
promptly caught up in America. Burke's famous 
"• Speech on Conciliation," made in j\Iarch prior to the 
fighting at Lexing-ton and Concord, is still studied in this country 
as a model of oratoiy, and as a defence of the jDosition taken hj the 
colonies. 

Governor Tryon, who ordered the troops to fire on the North 
Carolina " Regulators " at Alamance 
(p. llG),was afterwards 
the Royal governor of 
New York. Before the 
Revolution, he offered a reward of 
about $1000 for the capture of Ethan 
Allen, who led the " Green Mountain 
Boys " in seizing T i c o n d e r o g' a 
(p. 123). Tyron later brought for- 
ward a scheme to seize or assassinate 
George Washing-ton. 

At the siege of Boston, Wash- 
ington was joined by men from the 
Valley of Virginia, where, as a boy. 
he had made his fii-st sur- 
veys for Lord Fairfax. 
The men were clad in 
rude fringed hunting shirts and the 
Massachusetts militia at first laughed 
at them. But they were splendid 
fighters, and they soon commanded respect in spite of their clothes. 
Their leader, Daniel Morgan, had sei-\'ed under Braddock as a 
teamster. After Braddock's defeat, a British lieutenant, offended 
at something Morgan had said, struck him. Morgan immediately 
knocked the ofiicer down, whereui3on he was senteiiced to receive 
500 lashes. Morgan was a natural leader of men; later, he com- 
manded an American army in one of the best planned battles of 
the Revolution (p. 147). 

Many of the personal letters of John Adams and his wife, 



Daniel 
Morgan 




Born Abigail Smith at Wey- 
mouth, Massachusetts, 1744. Wife 
of John Adams, second President of 
the United States. Her letters, pre- 
served and published, are full of 
interest. Died 1818. 



WHY WE CELEBRATE JULY 4 129 

Abigail, have been preserved. Here is part of a letter Mrs. Adams 
wrote to her husband just before the battle of Bunker Hill. It 
shows that the expression " pin money " meant a good deal at 
that time : " I have a request to make of you ; something like the 
barrel of sand, I suppose you will think it, but really of 
much more importance to me. It is, that you would written by 
send out Mr. Bass, and purchase me a bundle of pins Abigail 
and put them in your trunk for me. The cry for pins ^^^' 
is so great that what I used to buy for seven shillings and sixpence 
are now twenty shillings, and not to be had for that. A bundle 
contains six thousand, for which I used to give a dollar; but if 
you can procure them for fifty shillings, or three pounds, pray let 
me have them." 

On May 29, 1775, John Adams wrote to his wife from the 
Continental Congress at Philadelphia : " Colonel Washington 
appears at Congress in his uniform, and, by his great Letter from 
experience and abilities in militaiy matters, is of much Jo^his^wff"^ 
service to us. Oh, that I were a soldier ! I will be. I 1775 
am reading military books. Everybody must, and will, and shall 
be a soldier." 

Here is a letter, dated October 13, 1774, from little John 
Quincy Adams, who aftenvards became the sixth President of 
the United States: 

" Sir, — I have been tiying* ever since you went away to learn 
to write you a letter. I shall make poor work of it; but, sir, 
mamma says you will accept my endeavors, and that Letter from 
my duty to you may be expressed in poor wi'iting as seven-year- 
well as good. I hope I grow a better boy, and that Quincy^ 
you will have no occasion to be ashamed of me when Adams, 
you return. Mr, Thaxter says I learn my books well. ^^*' ■^^' ^^^^ 
He is a veiy good master. I read my books to mamma. We all 
long to see you. I am, sir, your dutiful son, 

" John Quincy Adams." 

We often hear people speak of the signing of the Declaration 
of Independence on July 4. This is not strictly coiTect. why we 
It was not signed by the delegates generally until celebrate 
August 2 and after. It was, however, adopted by the ^^^^ * 
Continental Congress on July 4, and we celebrate that date as the 
birthday of this Republic. 



CHAPTEE VII 

The Revolution — from the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence TO THE Treaty of Peace 

For over a year, the people of the colonies were 
fighting British soldiers and resisting the laws of 
Parliament. At the same time, they were declaring 
their desire to remain loyal subjects of the British 
king. The king, however, upheld Parliament in its 
efforts to interfere with the self-government so long 
enjoyed by the colonies. The assemblies of the 
various colonies, which, since 1775, had been govern- 
ing themselves as if they were independent States, 
Declaration instructcd their delegates to the Continen- 
ence" adopted, "^^"^ Coiigrcss formally to declare their inde- 
juiy 4, 1776 pendeuce. Accordingly, on July 2, 1776, 
Richard Henry Lee, as a representative of Virginia, 
moved, ^^That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to he, free and independent States/' John 
Adams, representing Massachusetts, seconded the 
motion, and the form of the final resolutions, or the 
D eel a ration of Independenee, with its statement of 
colonial grievances against the British government, 
and the reasons for separation from that govern- 
ment, was drawn up by Thomas Jefferson and 
adopted by Congress on July 4.^ 

^ To the teacher : The Declaration of Independence is printed 
as an appendix. Some, at least, of the o-rievanees enumerated 
there may, at this time, be reviewed or read in class. 
130 



THE BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND 



131 




THE BROOKLYN BATTLE MONUMENT 

Monument at Prospect Park, Brooklyn, 
erected by the Maryland Society of the Sons 
of the American Revolution, in honor of four 
hundred troops of the Maryland Line who 
saved the American Army from capture in the 
battle of Long Island, August 27, 1776. Of 
these four hundred, Major Gist and but 
thirteen men escaped death or capture. 



July 5, the day 
after the adoption of 
the Declaration of In- 
dependence, marked 
the beginning of the 
invasion of the middle 
States by the British 
forces which had 
sailed from Boston to 
Halifax. Under Gen- 
eral Howe, 

' The battle of 
these lOrceS Long island, 
. Aug. 27, 1776 

seized 
Staten Island, New 
York ; and on July 12 
they were joined by 
the fleet which had 
been repulsed at Fort 
Moultrie. Many 
Hessian and other 
troops arrived from 
Europe; so that 
Washington, who had 
expected this attack 
upon New York, was 
called on to face a 
much superior force. 
He sent part of his 
army to hold Brook- 
lyn Heights on Long 
Island ; but these 



132 THE REVOLUTION 

troops were attacked on the 27tli of August and 
routed by overwhelming numbers of the enemy, who 
had quietly moved upon their right flank and rear. 
Perhaps the only thing that saved the American force 
from annihilation was a spirited charge by four 
hundred Maryland troops under General Stirling.^ 

General Putnam, in command of the American 
troops on Long Island, had allowed himself to be out- 
flanked and surprised; but, under cover of a foggy 
night, Washington succeeded in rescuing the remain- 
der of the American force. Some weeks later, after 
Washington Spirited encounters at Harlem Heights and 
New York °^ otlicr places, Washington retreated south- 
city ward into New Jersey. The American com- 
mander-in-chief found both New York and New 
Jersey full of those who remained loyal to the British 
authority. In addition to this Tory element, he was 
troubled by the interference of Congress. Practically 
against Washington's direction to abandon it, Con- 
gress directed General Greene to hold Fort Wash- 
ington, which had been constructed on the east bank 
of the Hudson. Howe attacked the fort on Novem- 
ber 16 and captured nearly 3000 American troops. 

The failure of an officer to bring up the force 
under his command compelled Washington to retreat 
across the Delaware into Pennsylvania. By the mid- 

^ Hessians was a term used in the Revolutionary War to 
mean hired or mercenary soldiers empkiyed by Great Britain to 
subjugate the colonies. Many of these soldiers came from Hesse- 
Cassel, one of the small States in central Europe. The petty 
princes of these States would sell the services of their subjects to 
any one who would pay for them. 



REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
IN THE NORTH 

SCALE OF MILES 




MAP SHOWING POINTS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE NEW ENGLAND AND MIDDLE STATES 

CAMPAIGNS 



134 



THE REVOLUTIOX 



dlo of December, the x^^itriot army had almost 
chviiulled away; and the British forces, as they hiy 
in winter quarters, contidently expected the patriot 

cause to collapse by spring. Washington, 
Trenton, howover, chosc Cliristmas night as the time 

most suitable for a surprise attack upon 
that part of the British army encamped at Trenton. 
Of three divisions of his army directed to cross the 




^N'ashington's army crossing the Delaware on thenightof December 25, 1776. On 
the following day, Washington surprised the British at Trenton and turned a period 
of gloom into one of rejoicing and hope for the cause of American independence. 

Belaivare, the one led by Washington in person alone 
succeeded. Washington's division struggled several 
hours amidst the floating ice of the Delaware, and the 
men began their march before daylight through a 
storm of snow and sleet. Trenton was reached, not 
at dawn, as intended, but several hours later. In a 
short but sharp encounter in the streets of the town, 
the Americans killed or captured nearly the entire 
British force of 1500 men, besides taking much- 



WINTER QUARTERS AT MORRISTOWN 135 

needed cannon and small arms. Washington had 
written Congress on December 20 that, ' ' unless some- 
thing is done, ten days more will x>ut an end to the 
existence of this army.'' Although his two other 
divisions had failed him, something was done within 
ten days, and that something caused Lord Germain 
to exclaim in Parliament some weeks afterwards : 
''All our hopes were blasted by that unhappy affair 
at Trenton." ^ 

A few days later, Washington, leaving his camp- 
fires burning at Trenton, slipped away from before 
the overwhelming force of C'ornwallis and struck a, 
British detachment a stunning blow at Princeton. 
Although Cornwallis had previously boasted that he 
''had at last run down the old fox," Washington 
was now free to march northward in what 
the British had felt was their "reclaimed Jan. 3, 1777; 
province of Xew Jersey. ' ' Washington quarters at 
went into winter quarters among the hills °"'^ °^" 
around Morristown and the British fell back to guard 
their military stores at Brunswick. From this new 
vantage point, Washington hoped to prevent the 
union between Howe's forces in New Jersey and 
those of Burgoyne then attempting to come south 
from Canada by way of the Hudson Valley. 

In the summer of 1777, Howe attempted to move 
overland to Philadelphia ; but, finding Washington's 
army in front of him, he embarked his forces and 

^ Among the names of Americans at Trenton, we find that 
of Lieutenant James Monroe, afterwards President of the United 
States. Lieutenant Monroe was wounded in capturing the British 
cannon. 



136 



THE REVOLUTION 



Battle of 

Brandywine 

Creek; 

British 

capture 

Philadelphia 



sailed out to sea and up the Chesapeake, landing near 
the head of the Bay. At Brandywine 
Creek, he outflanked and defeated the 
American forces, September 11. Congress 
fled to Lancaster and to York, and Howe 
entered Philadelphia in triumph. 

In October, Washington planned to surprise the 
British at Germantown somewhat as he had 

The attack be- 
fog caused 
confusion in the American forces, and the venture 



Germantown, surprised them at Trenton 

gan successfully ; but a hea\^ 



m 


m-' 


«-^MM^^*Mvi 




*'-■ . ■ >:y-,- .*,..':- 





WINTER QUARTERS AT VALLET FORGE 

Here the Continental troops were barely able to sustain themselves during the winter 

of 1777-78. 

failed after considerable losses had been sustained. 
Washington did not withdraw his troops in 
panic, and many sharp skirmishes were had 
with the British forces until the forts on the 
Delaware fell. In December, he made his 
headquarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill 
River. The winter of 1777-78 was a severe one, and 



Winter 
quarters at 
Valley 
Forge, 
1777-78 



BENNINGTON 137 

the soldiers were insufficiently provided with food and 
clothing. At times, the men had to sit up all night 
by the side of their fires to keep from freezing to 
death.^ 

While Howe was preparing for the march against 
Philadelphia, General Burgoyne, marching south 
from Canada, captured Ticonderoga. The farther 
the British marched down the 
Hudson Valley, the more diffi- 
cult it became for them to se- 
cure provisions for Bennington, 

their army; for Gen- ^'^e. i6, 1777 
eral Schuyler, the American 
commander, had carried off 
cattle and food supplies along 
the proposed line of march. 
When Burgoyne sent Colonel 
MARQUIS uE LAFAYETTE Bauui, wltli 8i cohsiderablc 
ofthe^aad^rivi;^^^^^^ force, to get supplies at Ben- 

services to cause of American • i -rr ,j xi, l„Xi^^ 

independence, 1777, setting out nmgton, Vermout, tile latter 

from Spain in vessel equipped , -, /-i i loiJi i 

by himself; commissioned major- WaS mCt Dy L OlOUel btarK ancl 
general; commanded at Brandy- / e ru nr i ' t~» i» 

wine; took leading part in final the GrCCU MOUntaiU BoyS 

operations against Cornwallis. 

Died in Paris, 1834. ^ud uttcrly defeated.^ 

Burgoyne had hoped to meet at Albany a British 
force moving eastward from Lake Ontario ; but this 

*In the fighting around Philadelphia, we first hear of the 
brilliant young Frenchman, Marquis de Lafayette. At Valley 
Forge, John Marshall, afterwards Chief Justice of the Supreme 
Court of the United States, helped greatly to keep up the spirits 
of the men by his wit and good nature. 

^ Before the engagement, Stark is reported to have said, point- 
ing to the British : " There they are, boys ; we beat them to-day, 
or Molly Stark is a widow." 




138 THE REVOLUTION 

force was defeated by General Herkimer and 

Benedict Arnold. Finding his supplies running low, 

Burgoyne was forced to attack the Americans at 

^ ^ Bemis Heights. This attack came near 

ourrenaer or . 

Burgoyne, being wholly successful, owinsr to the incom- 

Oct. 17, 1777 y-j V 7 o 

petency of General Gates, who had, by order 
of Congress, superseded the energetic Sclmyler. 
Washington had, however, 
spared from his own slender 
forces Daniel Morgan and 500 
Virginia riflemen. These men, 
accustomed to forest warfare, 
helped to bring the British into 
the severest straits ; so that, at 
Saratoga, on October 17, Bur- 
goyne was obliged to surrender 
what was left of his army, or 
BARON vox STEUBEN about 6000 mcu, together wdth 
S^:S^:^;iISL^ valuable military stores. 
cSnS:i, r/7t!c.ined ^S^n^g" Thc surrcudcr of Burgoyne 
driii^^oIStartfoo^slmtof- was as encouraging to the pa- 

general at surrender of Corn- j • j_ ii ' i. j. 

wallis; retired to land in New triOt CaUSC aS tUC VlCtOry at 
York granted by Congress, rn i^ i ti xi i 

Died 1794. Trenton had been the year be- 

fore ; but its results were more far-reaching than the 
previous engagement, for it encouraged France 
openly to offer assistance to the American 

Treaty with p 

France, Confederation. A few months later, France 
Marquis de' recoguizcd the United States as an inde- 
^ *^^ ^ pendent republic and made a treaty of 
friendship and alliance with the new government. 
The government of France, then under the rule of the 




tenant- 



THE NEW JERSEY CAMPAIGN 



139 



Bourbon kings, signed this treaty, not so much from 
love of the former American colonies, as from its de- 
sire to weaken Great Britain, the chief rival of France 
in Europe. On the other hand, many of the French 
people were generously and sincerely interested in 
the fight for free 
government in 
America. Of this 
number was the 
youthful Marquis 
de Lafayette. He 
offered his services 









Pluckemin c5 



swicic 



Reading ^;i^ 



4 



^Yalley Torge 
GermantowiT 

o Philadelphi 

West Chester 

/^Chad'ds 
^ Ford 

^ ^Wilmington, 



E&aibeth-/ 

Trinceton /b'K'intj-'itnn „ ^ 

ton ^ o^^'"^^*°",Englishtown- 

Trenton 
.fi ^^i,,—, ° Allentown 
11 r _2oSbf dentown 
.Norristown '\ ' j.-^^ 'S 

,^/^;<^0 tnn ^ 



'"-WJ 



'ork\o- ® 



f,"^- Newtowni 



V. 



Chester 



ton. 

-'''' Mt. HoUyl 
rCarnden 

JHaddonflerd. 



ingspocti 



^ 



to Congress without 
pay and served gal- 
lantly throughout the 
Eevolutionary War. 

In 1778, Clinton 
replaced Howe.^ The 
new commander was 
ordered to proceed at 
once to New York. In crossing New Jersey, how- 
ever, he was overtaken by Washiiigton at Mon- 
mouth Court House. Washington ordered General 
Charles Lee to attack the British vigorously ; but Lee 
was slow in moving and gave confusing orders, which 

" It has been alleged that Howe liked his American country- 
men so well that he hated to fight against them; and, for that 
reason, was not active in his efforts to conquer them. 



Map showing battle-fields and campaigns in 
Pennsylvania and New York. 



140 THE REVOLUTION 

led to the beginning of a general retreat by the 
American forces. Just as the battle seemed 
Monmouth, about to bc lost, Lafayette rushed up and 
reported Lee's action to his commander-in- 
chief . Washington at once rode forward ; and, after 
delivering a stinging rebuke to the disobedient officer, 
restored the American lines and renewed the fight. 
In spite of this unfortunate beginning, Washington 
succeeded in saving the day. When night came, 
Clinton retired from the field and resumed his march. 
Washington followed the British to the neighborhood 
of New York and, for nearly three years, kept a 
vigilant watch over the British from his camp in the 
neighborhood of that city."^ 

Among those Americans who, even in Revolution- 
ary times, were pushing forward the frontiers of the 
George colouies, the name of George Rogers Clark 

pianTto ^^ must ever be foremost. He was one of the 
Northwest early settlers in the county of Kentucky in 
Territory Virginia, and he conceived the plan of 
wresting from the British that great region extend- 
ing west and northwest from the Ohio River to the 
Mississippi and the Great Lakes. This Avas once a 
part of New France (see p. 90) ; but, after 1774, it 
had become a part of the British province of Quebec. 

' General Charles Lee is the officer referred to on p. 126 as 
having criticised Moultrie's " slaughter pen " in Charleston Har- 
bor. He had been an officer in the British army, where he had 
acquired a high reputation for military skill. After Monmouth, 
Lee was court-martialed. He was not connected with the famous 
Lee family of Virginia, which was represented in the Revolution 
by such men as Richard Henry and " Light Horse Harry " Lee. 



CLARK'S SECOND CAMPAIGN 141 

This territory might have remained a British prov- 
ince, bnt for the daring of Clark and the far-sighted 
wisdom of Thomas Jefferson, and of Patrick Henry, 
then Governor of Virginia. Clark laid his plan before 
Henry and Jefferson. Both approved it ; and Henry 
commissioned Clark, in the name of Virginia, to 
enlist and equip the force necessary to seize the 
territory. 

In the territory which Clark hoped to win, there 
were a number of important military posts under 
British control. From near Fort Pitt, Clark floated 
down the Ohio Eiver in May, 1778, with about 150 
men, on board flatboats. Opposite the present site 
of Louisville, he was joined by Simon Kenton with 
a small force of frontier fisrhters. Near the 

1 i> 1 m V^« Clark's first 

mouth of the Tennessee River, the expe- campaign; 
dition set out overland for Kaskaskia, the Missis- 
where the garrison was surprised and cap- ^^^^ ' 
tured on July 4. The French settlers were won over 
by the kindness of Clark, and the Indians were held 
otf from possible attack; so that, in a short while, 
Vincennes and the other posts in the Illinois country 
were in the hands of Clark or his men. 

The British governor, Hamilton, stationed at 
Detroit, did not remain idle. With a force of 500 
British and Indians, he retook Vincennes in ciark's 
December. Feeling secure from attack, he campa%n; 
waited for spring to come before driving y^nce^nnes,*" 
Clark out of Kaskaskia. The latter had "'' 
only about one hundred Americans and about sixty 
Frenchmen with him; and he wrote to Governor 



142 



THE REVOLUTION 



Henry : ^^ Our case is desperate ; we must either quit 
the country or attack" the enemy. Consequently, in 
the dead of winter, he set out to capture Vincennes in 
a march equal in perils and hardships to any in our 
history. The latter part of the route of nearly two 
hundred miles lay across the lowlands of the Wabash 
Eiver, where the men were forced to wade in icy 




Ft.JjefftTsou 



MAP SHOWING ROUTE TAKEN BY GEORGE ROGERS CLARK IN THE CAMPAIGN BY WHICH 
HE SECURED THE NORTHWEST FROM THE BRITISH 

water, often up to their necks, with scarcely enough 
food to sustain them. Since Hamilton was not ex- 
pecting such visitors at this time, part of his force 
had been sent away. The remainder were attacked 
by Clark with so much vigor that the British garrison 
surrendered on February 25, 1779. Hamilton and his 
men were sent under guard to Jefferson, recently 
elected governor in place of Patrick Henry ; and the 



A NAVAL DUEL 



143 



territory seized from the British was made into the 
county of Illinois, in Virginia. 

While these events were happening on land, the 
sailors of the young American republic were gaining 
fame on the sea. The beginnings of a navy Beginnings 
had been authorized by Congress very soon l*Je^kan 
after fighting began, and John Barry was ^^^y 
the first to be given a special command. From this 
^^^^^ time on, besides the capture of 
^t^^^^^ great numbers of British mer- 
g^S^^K^^^ chantmen by armed privateers, the 
BB/l^mmt^M f^w war vessels fitted out were 
^^^ ^^^H highly successful in duels with 
««.^^ -^.. W British ships. 

Of the American commanders, 
John Paul Jones is the most noted. 
He harried the British Anavai 
coast and even entered ^"^^' ^^^' 
the British harbor of Whitehaven. 
On the 23rd of September, 1779, he 




JOHN PAUL JONES 

(From Painting by 
Charles Willson Peale) 

Born Scotland, 1747; 
sailor at age of twelve ; 

settled in Virginia, 1773: • t p xi t-» 

served in American navy WaS lU COmmaUd 01 tlie h OU 
during Revolution; com- ^-^ t~»'7 t i i Pii' 

manded Bon Homme Rich- H omwiG Hicliard, wheu lie leii in 

ard in fight with the Sera- . , , , , t^ • i • i i • rv • mi 

vis; rear-admiral Russian Wltll the BritlSh Ship SerapiS. Tile 

navy after American Revo- 

iuti6n. Died in Paris, 1792. better guus of tlie Britlsli vessel 
almost disabled the Bon Homme Richard early in 
the fight, while several of the guns on the American 
vessel burst. Firing having ceased for a short time, 
Captain Pearson asked if Jones had struck his colors. 
^'I have not yet begun to fight,'' was the latter 's 
reply. From time to time, the ships were lashed 
together, and the fight continued until the decks of 
both vessels ran with blood and both were on fire. 




144 THE REVOLUTION 

Finally, tlie Serapis was the one to haul down its 
colors. As the Bon Homme Richard was in a sinking 
condition, Jones and his men sailed away in the 
British frigate.^ 

For a period of four years after their defeat at 
Fort Moultrie, the British at- 
tempted no extended campaign in 
the south. Tlie principal scene of 
conflict since that time had been in 
Charleston the middle States. In 
ihfBritishf 1^80, however, a deter- 
1780 mined effort was made to 

subjugate the Carolinas and 
Georgia. In May, 1780, General 
Lincoln, in command at Charles- BorTrpelns'^uvania. 
ton, was forced to surrender after iVt1oLTwlSng^?r7n^^^ 

1 ' -, • Till 1 of brigadier-general; like 

bemg besieged by land and sea. Greene, accepted a pian- 

c>4 ^ , T o< J 1 / ^ 1 • o tation offered bv Georgia 

Subsequently, bouth C arolma sut- and moved to that state; 

^ -, ^ , p elected to Congress, 1791; 

tered trOm the ravages OI war as major-general defeated 

^ Indians at Fallen Timbers 

more than any other State; and ^f ^p-^- j^i^knamed/'Mad 

•^ ' Anthony for daring in 

Clinton and Cornwallis outlawed ^^"^^- ^^^^ i^^^- 
all people who would not take an oath actively to 
support the British government.^ 

*It may be said that one bold American sailor turned the 
tide of battle. When all hope of victory seemed lost, this sailor 
crawled out to the end of the main-j-ard with a bucket of hand- 
gTenades, and lighting them one by one, dropped them on the 
deck of the Serapis, where they did such damage to men and 
guns that the crew was thrown into a panic. Captain Pearson 
of the Serapis was aftei-wards knighted for his brave fight. It is 
said that when Jones heard of it, he remarked : " Pearson deserved 
it, and if I fall in with him again, I'll make a lord of him." 

' Savannah had been captured by the British in 1778. A 
combined French and American force attempted to retake the 



THE "PARTISAN LEADERS" 145 

By the summer of 1780, however, the Americans 
had put an army in the south to oppose the progress 
of the British. Washington was desirous Gates 
of placing General Greene in command, but camd^n ^* 
Congress appointed General Gates instead, -^"s. i6,'i78o 
The latter was utterly routed by Cornwallis at 
Camden, South Carolina, August 16, 1780.^^ 

Gates did not stop his flight until he was several 
score miles to the rear. After the battle at Camden, 
he was superseded by General Nathanael Greene; 
but, for a while, the patriot party of the The 
Carolinas and Georgia had to look for pro- ISiy^n 
tection to a number of small partisan bands *^® ^°"*^ 
under Marion, Sumter, Pickens, Clarke, and other 
leaders, who constantly harassed the British and cut 
off detached parties of Tories and " red-coats. '' ^^ 

town in 1779; but the allies were defeated with heavy losses. 
D'Estaing, in command of the French fleet, seems to have been 
peculiarly unfortunate in achievement. Washington^ had counted 
on his aid to " coop up " and capture Clinton in New York after 
the battle of Monmouth. D'Estaing failed to enter the harbor. 
Later, he was engaged in an unsuccessful attack upon the British 
at Newport. 

"^^ General Horatio Gates had been scheming in Congress for 
some time. He was the man brought f oi-ward by the " Conway 
cabal" (so called from the name of one of the conspirators) to 
supersede Washington as commander-in-chief. Gates had been 
an officer in the British service, and Washington had recommended 
liim for a commission in the Continental army. 

" To the teacher : A number of historical incidents connected 
with this partisan warfare have been published by Howard Meri- 
wether Lovett, under the title of " Grandmother Stories from 
the Land of Used-to-be." Owing partly to the conditions then 
prevailing in the sparsely settled southern States, these incidents 
possess peculiar interest. 
10 



146 



THE REVOLUTION 



With respect to American independence, the Sep- 
tember following the battle of Camden seemed to be 
the gloomiest period of the war; yet, it turned out 




MAP SHOWING REVOLUTIONARY BATTLE-FIELDS IN THE SCTJTHERN STATES 

to be "the darkness just before the dawn." At 
King's Mountain, on the border between North Caro- 
lina and South Carolina, a number of the patriot 




COWPENS, JANUARY 17, 1781 147 

leaders from the western frontier attacked the noted 
British leader, Fergnson, and wiped out 
his force of 1100 men. The victory was so Mountain, 
decisive and the American loss so small 
that it encouraged the patriot party everywhere.^^ 
King's Mountain became a rallying cry of the 
partisan leaders. The plans of 
Cornwallis were frustrated; 
and the 'British had to oppose 
larger bodies of troops under 
General Nathanael cowpens, 
Greene, Daniel Mor- J^^- 1^, 1781 
gan, and ' ' Light Horse Harry ' ' 
Lee. Morgan opened the cam- 
^1/^^ -^V* J paign in January by defeating 
^'^^Bf ^ ^^ Cowpens, South Carolina, a 

DANIEL xvioRGAN supcrlor forcc of British and 

movSftS l/ir£nrairi753?'twJ Torics uudcr Coloucl Tarleton. 
^^:S.'^l7d:^^:L^:t^T-^ with his back to a 

tion served with distinction in • t tm i -\ i ff i ' 

New England and the Middle rivcr, deliberately cut oil his 

States; commanded at Cowpens; j t r» 

member of Congress, 1795-'99. QWll rctrCat bcf OrC tllC battlc I 

Died at Winchester, Virginia, 

1S02. and, then, by pretending flight 

with his advanced line, drew the British into a trap, 
from which, out of a force of 1150, few escaped.^ ^ 

^' The Americans were led by the frontier fighters : Campbell, 
Sevier, Shelby, McDowell, Williams, and Cleveland. Each one led 
a life full of adventure in the development of the western country. 

^■'' Altholigii having less than a thousand men at Cowpens, this 
was the only occasion on which Morgan was ever given an inde- 
pendent command in the war. At Cowpens he prepared the most 
ably planned and well executed engagement of the Revolution. 
Later, he showed equal skill in evading the heavy columns of 
Cornwallis, who set out at once to capture him. 



148 



THE REVOLUTION 



Guilford 
Court House 
Mar. 15 



On March 15, Greene gave battle to Cornwallis at 
Guilford Court House in North Carolina. Greene 
was defeated, but withdrew from the field 
in good order. The loss of the British was 
so heavy that Cornwallis saw clearly that 
he could not stand many more victories of that kind. 
Moreover, one fortified post after another fell into 
the hands of the Americans; 
and, after the indecisive engage- 
ments at Hobkirk's Hill and at 
Eutaw Springs, South (Caro- 
lina, the minor British forces 
were driven back to 

Cornwallis 

in Virginia, the sca coast. Until by 
the end of September 
they held only Savannah and 
Charleston. 

In the meantime, Cornwallis 
had marched northward into 
Virginia. Washington sent 
Lafayette to oppose his prog- 
ress, and it seemed at first as if 
the ardent young French soldier, then but twenty- 
three years old, Avas about to be overwhelmed. As 
(^ornwallis had said of Washington at Trenton : ' ' I 
have run down the old fox at last" ; so now he said of 
Lafayette: ''The boy cannot escape me." ''The 
boy" did escape, however; and after Colonel 
Tarleton's attempt to capture Thomas Jefferson and 
the Virginia Legislature at Charlottesville, "the 
boy" received reinforcements and compelled the 




GENERAL NATHANAEL GBEENE 

Born Rhode Island, 1742; 
major-general in Continental 
Army; served with distinction 
in Northern, Middle, and South- 
ern States; after the Revolu- 
tion, he moved to Georgia, 
where he died in 1786, one year 
before the framing of the United 
States Constitution. 



SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 



149 



British to retreat to Richmond and finally to 
Yorktown.^^ 

At this time, Washington had been threatening to 
attack (Uinton in New York. He now saw that, with 
the aid of the French fleet, he had a better chance to 
defeat Cornwallis. Consequently, he moved a large 
part of his army as secretly and as rapidly as pos- 
sible from New York to 
Virginia 
With a s u 
perior French ^^^^' ^^ 
fleet under Count de 
Grasse closing the 
Chesapeake against 
British reinforcements, 
he had caught Corn- 
wallis in a trap. At 
Yorktown, the British 
general made a last 




Surrender of 
Cornwallis 
at Yorktown, 



MAP SHOWING CAMPAIGN AGAINST CORN- 
WALLIS AT YORKTOWN 



stand; but, after fight- 
ing against the advanc- 
ing lines of the French- American allies for a month, 
he was compelled, on October 19, 1781, to surrender 
his entire army. 

The surrender of Cornwallis, preceded by a 
French loan to the United States, caused the British 
to regard the subjugation of the former American 

"Jefferson and the Legislature were saved from capture 
througii a timely warning brought by John Jouett, who saw the 
British troops at Louisa Court House, suspected their errand, and 
rode some forty miles to Charlottesville that night. 



150 THE REVOLUTION 

colonies as a well-nigli hopeless task. The war minis- 
try resigned, and negotiations for peace were begun. 
A preliminary treaty of peace was signed 
Peace, at Paris, November 30, 1782. This became 

1782-'83 

final in the following year. By the terms of 
the treaty, Great Britain acknowledged the entire in- 
dependence of her former colonies, mentioning each 
by name. New York City was given up by the British 
in November, 1783; and, at Annapolis, where Con- 
gress was then in session, Washington resigned his 
commission on the 23rd of December, and returned to 
Mount Vernon as a private citizen. 

Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

War sei'^'es to bring out the bad and the good in sharp con- 
trast. In war, one man is seen to give up his life for his country, 
while another is revealed to the eyes of the world in an attempt to 
betray it. Yet, he who gives up his life in battle is, 
self-sacrifice perhaps, not superior to the man avIio, sacrificing his 
in war and private welfare in time of peace, regards a " public 
peace office as a public trust." On the other hand, the man 

who betrays his counti-y is no worse than he who betrays a public 
trust for private gain. In the American Revolution, the names of 
two men seem to stand out in sharp contrast. These men were 
born in the same colony within a few miles of each other. Both 
were brave; but one gave his life for his countiy, while the other 
has been branded forever as a traitor. 

When the Revolution broke out, Nathan Hale was a school 
teacher in Connecticut. He soon offered himself as a volunteer 
to the Continental army and was promoted to a captaincy. After 
the American retreat from Long Island, it Avas impor- 
Nathan Hale ^^^^^ ^^^^, Washington to learn something of the British 
plans. Captain Hale volunteered to act as spy and went into the 
British camp in disguise. He had secured much of the informa- 
tion sought; but was caught and hanged in accordance with the 
laws of war. Just before his death he said : " I onlj^ regret that I 
have but one life to lose for my country." 



DAVID BUSHNELL'S SUBMARINE 151 

Benedict Arnold was a military leader of unusual ability. 
The services he rendered the American cause in the early years 
of the war were excelled by none. In an invasion of Canada, he 
was severely wounded; and he was again wounded in New York, 
where he did much to bring about the overthrow of Burgoyne. But 
Congress did not treat him justly, he thought; hence, 
he determined (in the darkest period of the Revolu- Arnofd*^* 
tion ) to betray West Point, of which post he had com- 
mand, to the British. He arranged the details of the betrayal with 
Major Andre, an officer under General Clinton. Andre, however, 
was caught in disguise within the American lines and was hanged 
as a spy. Arnold received warning and escaped. He afterwards 
fought with the British against his country, but accomplished 
nothing of importance. 

In 1778, Parliament offered to make a number of conces- 
sions to the former American colonies. The Tea Tariff Act and 
the Massachusetts Government Act were repealed, and 
Parliament further declared it would not levy taxes in concniatfon 
the colonies. Pitt, the great champion of the rights of with the 
the colonies, was called to the head of the ministry; but late"^^^ *°° 
he was soon after seized with a fatal illness. In Ameri- 
can opinion, however, the concessions came too late to restore the 
colonies to their former allegiance. 

A name worthy to rank with John Paul Jones is that of 
Commodore Abraham Whipple, of Rhode Island. It is claimed 
for him that he destroyed and captured more British ships than 
any other American commander. On one occasion, he 
disguised the frigate Providence and sailed, unsus- Commodore 
pected, with a large fleet of British merchantmen. On Whipple" 
ten successive nights^ he slipped into this British con- 
voy, secured one of the vessels as a prize, and then continued to 
sail with the rest as before. Eight of these prizes reached America 
and were sold for $1,000,000. {Cf. reference to Barney, p. 196.) 

During the course of the war, David Bushnell, of Connecticut, 

constructed a rude kind of submarine which he called 

the Turtle. With this craft, Bushnell succeeded in get- Bushneil's 

ting under a British war-vessel; but he was unable snbmarine, 

. 1777 

properly to fasten his charge of powder and his efforts 

to blow up the vessel failed. 



152 THE REVOLUTION 

When the Greeks won the world-famons battle of Marathon, 
a messenger of victoiy ran from the field to carry the news to 
Athens, 26 miles away. America had such a messeng-er in 
Colonel Tench Tilghman, military aid and secretary to 
Colonel George Washing-ton, who set out from Yorktown to 

Tench cany to the Continental Congress, at Philadelphia, the 

1 g man ^^ws of the surrender of Cornwallis. Going up the 
Chesapeake to Annapolis and crossing the Bay, he took horse in 
Kent County: and, as he rode by night and day, he spread the 
news among the people; so that at midnight of the 23d of October, 
the watchmen of Philadelphia cried out on their rounds: " Twelvh 
o^clock; all is well; Cornwallis is taken." 



SUMMARY OF EVENTS 



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CHAPTER VIII 

The Confedekation of States Aftek the Eevolu- 

TION AND THE FORMATION OF A STRONGER UnION, TO 

Close of Federalist Period 

The Critical Period Under the Confederation. — We 
have become so accustomed to a strong Federal gov- 
ernment at Wasliington that it is now hard to realize 
that the central government of the States during the 
Revolution had little or no authority over the States 
or the people. From 1776 to 1783, a common fear 
of oppression had united a nmnber of practically 
independent States. Each of them had a form of 
government somewhat different from its neighbors, 
and each was jealous of those neighbors. In the first 
years of the Revolution, the Continental 
the Con- Cougrcsscs wcTc composcd of very able 

federation « ,^ i i • i x i?i_ 

men from the several colonies; but, alter 
the Declaration of Independence was issued, Con- 
gress became weaker and weaker. Strong men 
wished to serve in the legislatures of their respective 
States, where there was real power for government, 
rather than in a Continental legislature which had 
little or no authority. There was no President such 
as we have to-day. There was but one house in Con- 
gress, where each State had one vote. This Congress 
could make a treaty, but it could not carry out the 
terms of that treaty; it called upon the States for 
money for the Continental Army, but it could not 
collect that money. 
154 



1 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 



155 



After the Revolution, when a common clanger 
seemed removed, the States barely held together. 

Some of them, as, for ex- 
ample, New York and 

NewJerSey, Local self- 

began to wage ^^ST' 
commercial ^***^ "^^*^ 
war against each other as 
if they were different 
nations. Each State 
governed itself as it saw 
tit, and many of them 
controlled territory 
larger than that of the 
mother country. So ac- 
customed had each State 
become to the manage- 
ment of its own affairs, 
that each of them feared 
to create a strong central 
government, which not 
only must take from the 
States some of their self- 
government, but which 
also might unite a ma- 
jority of the States in 
encroachment upon the 
rights of the rest. Taxa- 
tion by such a govern- 
ment might become as 
obnoxious as that which 




gENIAMiH Bhm.m 
IN 177} 



BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 

This statue, designed by Dr. R. T. 
McKenzie, represents Benjamin 
Franklin as he arrived in Philadelphia 
from Boston in 1723. He was then a 
youth of seventeen, without friends 
or money, in a strange city. Here he 
followed the trade of a printer and, in 
time, edited and published the famous 
"Poor Richard's Almanack." Promi- 
nent as a colonial leader, he was, during 
the Revolution, the representative of 
the United States at Paris; later. Presi- 
dent of Pennsylvania ; member of Consti- 
tutional Convention; scientist, author, 
philosopher. DiedinPhiladelphia, 1790. 



had been proposed by Parliament. 



156 



CONFEDERATION OF STATES 



The States that had no claims to western terri- 
tory were jealous of their more fortunate sisters. 
Especially was Maryland jealous of the great west- 
ern and northwestern claims of Virginia, made se- 




MAP SHOWING STATE CLAIMS WESTWARD TO THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

cure by the expedition of Greorge Rogers Clark. 
Maryland insisted that she would not sign the 
articles of confederation until these and other State 
claims were given up. Virginia, against the em- 
phatic protest of Patrick Henry, yielded her claims 



STRONGER CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 157 

m 1781- '84. Other States followed suit (see map, 
p. 156) ; and it was agreed that the western territory 
claimed by the various States should be- The states 
come the property of the central govern- we'Sem *^^'' 
ment and be made into new States when- ^^^'°^^ 
ever the increase in population should justify it.^ 
The cession of their western lands by some of 
the States very greatly increased the desire of all 
for a better central government. Furthermore, the 
need of such a government was shown by Arguments 
the difficulties in dealing with foreign gov- stronger 

, . . n r^ I central 

ernments, ranging m power irom Grreat government 
Britain, France, and Spain to the Barbary pirates on 
the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Additional 
reasons for a stronger union w^ere presented in tariff 
wars between the States, while the irregular values of 
State and Continental currency caused many riots. ^ 

^ On the part of Virginia especially, this cession was the gift 
of an empire for the preservation of the first American union, 
and the act has no parallel in histoiy. Upon this cession, Mary- 
land agreed to sign the articles of confederation, and the first 
fonnal nnion was ratified in 17S1. 

Other State claims by charter are given in the map on p. 156. 
New York and Pennsylvania broke into the Massachusetts and 
Connecticut charter claims. The States south of Maryland had 
unbroken western claims to the Mississippi. 

■ The most noted of these riots took place in Massachusetts 
and is known in history as Shays' Rebellion. It is said that George 
III regarded these outbreaks in the States with considerable satis- 
faction, and believed that the Americans would be glad to come 
back under the protection of the British monarchy. Few European 
statesmen believed the American democracy could possibly succeed. 
They, however, did not understand the strength of character' and 
the general intelligence of the American people, who had become 
used to self-g'oveniment in their several communities or colonies. 



158 CONFEDERATION OF STATES 

As the earlier dispute between the two central 
States of Maryland and Virginia led to a settlement 
of the western claims and to the ratification of the 
Confederation, so now a disag-reement between these 
two States with regard to navigation on the Potomac 
finally led to the gathering together in convention of 
many of the ablest men of all the States, except 
Rhode Island, to settle State dif- 
ferences and to create a central 
government that w^ould command 
The Con- rcspcct at home and 
SoiventTon, ^broad. This great con- 
1787 gress, known in history 

as the Constitutional Convention, 
gathered at Philadelphia in May, 
1787. Virginia sent George Wash- 
ing:ton, who presided over the con- 

<-• ' ^ , ALEXANDER HAMILTON 

vention, and James Madison. Bom west indies, jan- 
Massachusetts sent Elbridge Gerry S's'cUielelWIwTorll 

■^ -r^ r, -T7" -VT -XT 1 i. one of the youngest of the 

and KurUS King; r^eW YorK sent colonlal leaders of Revolu- 
tionary times; leader in 

Alexander Hamilton. Franklin, constitutional convention; 

as nrst becretarv of the 

recently returned from France, ^^^^S'lX^^A 
represented Pennsylvania. From S ALoTB^utr'iuVn! 
South Carolina came John Rut- 
ledge and Charles and C. C. Pinckney. These and 
other delegates from the same and from other States 
sat in convention for over three months and devised 
a new plan of government which one of the most 
famous of European statesmen afterward*s declared 
to be '^the most wonderful work ever struck off at a, 
given time by the brains and purpose of man/^ 




ADOPTION BY STATES 159 

The new Constitution gave real powers to tlie 
central government. It provided for a President, a 
Supreme Court, and a Congress ; it was authorized 
to enforce its laws through its federal officers ; it had 
the power to levy taxes and import duties for raising 
revenue ; and it could regulate trade be- a few of the 
tween the States. The large States and the SJThe'"''' 
small States had settled their differences by constitution 
compromise. In the lower house of Congress the 
States were to be represented according to popula- 
tion ; in the upper house (the Senate) , large and small 
States were to be represented equally.'^ 

Ahnost all the articles of the Constitution repre- 
sented a series of compromises. After it was com- 
pleted, it had to be ratified or agreed to by the several 
States before it could go into effect. If as many as 
nine should ratify it, the new government was to go 
into effect in at least those nine. Those who defended 
the Constitution when presented in each of the States 
were called Federalists. A number of the 

Arguments 

great leaders of the Revolution, however, for and 
among whom was Patrick Henry, opposed adoption by 
it on the ground that it gave too much 
power to the central government, which might suc- 
ceed in overthrowing the self-government of the 
States. Henry and the anti-Federalists argued that 
they were contending for the very principles for 
which the American Revolution was begun. The 
Federalists contended that a stronger central gov- 

^ Portions of the Constitution (Appendix) may here be taken 
lip for explanation, and additional explanations may be given as 
to the operation of the government and its three great departments. 



160 FEDERAL UNION 

ernment had become a necessity, and that it wouhl 
not be used to encroach upon the self-government of 
the States, but would protect all alike against foreign 
aggression. 

Beginnings of the Federal Republic Under the Con- 
stitution. — Although the Constitution was completed 
in 1787, it did not go into effect until 1789. By that 
time eleven States had ratified its provisions, an 
election had been held, and George Washington was 
chosen the first President by a unanimous vote of 
the electors. John Adams received the next largest 
number of votes and became, in accordance with the 
method of selection then in use, Vice-President.'* 

George Washington became the first President 
of the United States on April 30, 1789. He selected 
Inauguration f 01' his adviscrs or Cabinet officers : Thomas 
wishinyton Jefferson, Secretary of State; Alexander 
President Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; 
April 30, 1789 Hcury Knox, Secretary of War ; and 
Edmund Eandolph, Attorney-General. He appointed 
John Jay, of New York, the first Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court.^ 

* Although two of the strongest siipportei-s of the new form 
of government, Alexand.er Hamilton and James Madison, lived in 
New York and Virginia respectively, these States were the last to 
join the Union before the government went into effect. Virginia 
ratified the Constitution with the proviso: "That the powers 
granted under the Constitution, being derived from the people of 
the United States, may be resumed by them, whenever the same 
shall be perverted to their injury or oppression." New York 
made a similar proviso. North Carolina joined the Union later 
in 1789, and Rhode Island joined last of all, in 1790. 

^ To the teacher: Comparison may be made with the number 
and personnel of the present Cabinet. 



RAISING REVENUE 161 

The first business of the new government was to 
find ways of raising money for its necessary ex- 
penses. People do not like to be taxed; but, when 
the tax is not directly seen, they often pay the tax 
without knowing a great deal about it. It Raising 
was proposed to raise money chiefly by in- ^^^^^^l' 
direct tax — ^by laying a tax or tariff on p^^" ^o'' t^^ 

*^ *^ ^ . seat of 

imported goods. The various States had government 
been doing this ; but now the central government was 




From Avery's History of the ITnited States anil Its People 
Courtesy ot the United States History Co., Cleveland 

William and Mary College, founded at Williamsburg in 1693; sometimes referred 
to as the successor to Henrico College, founded in 1619 at Jamestown; institution 
suffered greatly in Revolution; George Washington served as chancellor, 1788-'99; 
suffered more losses in War of Secession, when most of its property was destroyed; 
graduated Presidents Jefferson, Monroe, Harrison, and Tyler; established first chairs 
of law and of history, and first chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. 

to have the benefit of that revenue. It was also pro- 
posed that the war debts of the States should be taken 
over and paid by the Federal government. This 
measure was carried, and at the same time it was 
decided that the capital of the United States should 
be built upon the Potomac. 

Ten amendments to the Constitution were drawn 
11 



1G2 FEDERAL UNION 

up and passed (see Appendix). The first nine of 
these amendments aimed to make secure the freedom 
The first of the people in the exercise of civil and 
amendments ^eiigious rights aud privilegcs. The last 
Constitution ^f ^|^g ^gj^ statcd that such powers as were 
not expressly granted to the Federal government 
were reserved to the several States. 

Washington, in selecting his advisers, chose men 
of different political views. He wanted to avoid 
factions and party politics. In the selection of 
Hamilton and Jefferson, he found two men 
views of who seemed equally anxious to serve their 
thrbe^n- ' country well-, but who differed so greatly 
pimicai in their ideas as to government that they 
parties could uot coutinue to work together in har- 

mony. xVs the differences between the views of these 
two very able men represent differences not between 
individuals only, but political theories which have 
influenced the development of our country from that 
time to this, it is important to understand what these 
theories were. In part, the views of each prevailed. 
Our governmental i3olicies and development repre- 
sent a compromise between them. 

Alexander Hamilton was born in theWest Indies in 
1757. He was educated at King's College (Columbia 
University), and became a colonial leader at a very 
early age. Although he took his stand with the patriot 
party in America, be thought that the European 
forms of government as then existing would furnish 
the best models for America. He did not believe that 
the masses of the people were capable of exercising 
political privileges. He thought that the control of 



VIEWS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 163 

the goverimieiit should be in the hands of a few ; for 
example, the 'Sv ell-born '' and the '^well-to-do," or 
those having property interests.^ This was his gen- 
eral view of government; for the Federal 

. Views of 

government, in particular, he advocated Alexander 
almost unlimited power over the people and 
over the States. Hamilton was an able advocate of 
high import taxes or tariffs, not only to provide 
money to make the Federal government strong, but 
also to protect and build up powerful manufacturing 
interests. He would have preferred a President 
elected for life, or even a monarchy, to the dangers 
he thought he saw in allowing the people generally to 
have a voice in the conduct of governmental policies. 
Thomas Jefferson was a descendant of that John 
Jefferson wlio was a member of the Jamestown House 
of Burgesses, the first representative assembly of the 
New World. Thomas Jefferson believed that all the 
people should have a share in the making and main- 
tenance of srovernment. He was so opposed 

• -T T 1 ji J Ji Views of 

to privneged classes that, as soon as the Thomas 
Revolution gave him opportunity, he at 
once worked for the overthrow in his own State of 
every form of privilege derived from British custom 
or heritage. He believed that the Federal govern- 
ment should have no more power than was absolutely 
necessary to maintain' foreign treaties and to carry 
out those pro^dsions mentioned in the exact words of 
the Constitution. 

No one can say positively what might have hap- 
pened ; but it seems most fortunate that part of the 

' See p. 48, f oot-note. 



164 FEDERAL UNION 

views of each of these men prevailed in the formation 
of the government. If Hamilton had had his way 
only, a Federal government might have been created 
so much like the Old World forms of his age that the 
people would have rejected it altogether. On the 
other hand, had Jefferson's views whollv 

Compromises •! i i t t i • i "^ 

prevailed, the I ederal government might 
have lacked the means to command respect or to 
maintain itself at all in the early stages of its exist- 
ence. Hamilton's measures in assuming the Revolu- 
tionary debts of the States and in establishing a great 
bank under Federal control helped to create con- 
fidence in the stability of the government. 

The first clash between the Federal government 
and the people of a State occurred in western Penn- 
sylvania. Congress had passed a bill authorizing a 
tax on distilled spirits. This tax was felt most heavily 
by the people living in western communities. Here 
the people raised large crops of corn ; but they could 
not get it tO' the eastern markets on account of the 
First diffi- w^retched condition of the roads. By using 
rtdfraf *^^ ^1^^ grain in the making of spirituous 
government Hq^ors, they could reduce it to a manu- 
factured article of smaller bulk and of greater 
commercial value. TheFederal tax collectors were re- 
sisted, and Washing-ton had to call out a Federal force 
to overcome the '^rebellion." The protest of these 
farmers gains added weight when we find that Albert 
Grallatin, a future Secretary of the Treasury and a 
successor of Hamilton, sympathized with the protest, 
althouorh not with the threats of armed resistance. 



INDIAN WARS 165 

Mention has already been made of the accession 
to the Union of North Carolina and Rhode IslandJ 
These had been two of the original thirteen Additional 
States in the Confederation; but, in 1791 Z^^oV" 
and 1792, respectively, two new States were ^^^^''^^ 
added to the Union. These two States were Vermont 
and Kentucky. In 1796, Tennessee was admitted to 
the Union as the sixteenth State.^ 

Western expansion again brought on Indian wars. 
These wars lasted from 1790 to 1795 and it tested the 
strength of the Federal government to end them. 
General Harmar was sent against the Indians, but 
was defeated on the Maumee River, Ohio, in^j^n wars, 
in October, 1790. In the following year, i79o-'95 
General St. Clair, the territorial governor, was like- 
wise defeated near the same place. In 1794, however. 
General Anthony Wayne retrieved these disasters by 
a great victory over the allied tribes at the battle of 
Fallen Timbers. 

During the whole of the Revolutionary period, 

' When President Wasliington traveled through the New 
England States in 1789, Rhode Island was regarded as foreign 
territory — a little separate nation. The people of that State were 
still debating the advisability of joining the Union. 

To the teacher : An occasional reference to " what might have 
been " often adds interest to histoncal study, and not infrequently 
impresses upon the mind important political issues. 

^ VeiTTLont had tried to join the Confederation dunng the 
Revolution, but was refused admission through the influence of 
New York, the latter State claiming her territory. Vermont had 
been, to all intents and purposes, an independent State from 1777. 
Tennessee had, for a period, an independent existence as the State 
of Frankland or Franklin. This independence arose from difficul- 
ties with the parent State of North Carolina from 1784 to 1788. 



166 



FEDERAL UNION 



throughout the period of the Confederation, and dur- 
ing Washington's administrations, the tide of fron- 
tier life was pushing steadily westward. After the 
Advance of ^^^^ ^^ " New France" in 1763, Great 
the frontier Britain had tried to hold back English 
settlement from extending beyond the Alleghanies; 




leveland ' 

(the terrjt'ory \^ ' 

NORXHW^ST OfVtHE OHIO p 





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It/Lo^ntiviUe A.Chimcuthe ,'-^^""'"'' f^ "' 



Louisville y^ ^Lexington -4^ 
,Boonesl)orough 
Harrodsto\vn»^''j^V\ -^ 



MAP SHOWING DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTHWEST AFTER THE REVOLUTION; 
SHOWS ALSO THE FAMOUS ROAD OR " TRAIL " OF DANIEL BOONE FROM NORTH CAROLINA 
AND VIRGINIA INTO KENTUCKY 



but the Revolution and the conquest of the Northwest 
by George Rogers Clark changed these conditions, 
and settlement had already begun south of the Ohio 
River in Kentucky and Tennessee. Prior to the com- 
ing of the white settlers, Kentucky had been a kind of 



DANIEL BOONE'S FORT 167 

*' hunting ground" or meeting place for northern and 
southern tribes of Indians, which neither claimed. 
Settlement in this territory was made possible by the 
defeat of Cornstalk at the battle of Point Pleasant or 
the Great Kanawha (p. 99) . Conditions of settlement 
were different from those in other regions where 
the frontier had progressed grddually westward. In 
Kentucky the first places selected for settlement were 




DAMLL, BOON 



Daniel Boone, the famous Kentucky pioneer, first visited the "Dark and Bloody 
Ground" in May, 17G9. From the first, Boone and his companions were attacked 
by the Indians. In 1773, Boone made his "blazed trail" to the banks of the Ken- 
tucky River. In 1775, the first year of the American Revolution, he built a fort at 
Boonesboro. 

on the other side of mountainous districts, far beyond 
the English outposts. The men who had the most 
active part in the earliest development of Kentucky 
were James Harrod, Daniel Boone^ and Richard 
Henderson. Ilarrodstown was founded in 1774 and 
Boonesboro in 1775. Tennessee had an even earlier 
beginning in the WataUga settlements, and these off- 
shoots of Virginia and North Carolina had become 



168 FEDERAL UNION 

vigorous States before tlie end of the eighteenth 
century (seep. 165).^ 

In 1784, after the cession to the United States of 
the Northwest Territory, Thomas Jefferson drew up 
an ordinance, or hiw, for its government. This law 
was at that time defeated in Congress ; but, in modi- 
fied form, it was passed three years later by the 
Congress of the dying Confederation and became 
Ordinance J^stly famous as the Ordinance of 1787. It 
of 1787 provided for a division of the territory into 

States — not less than three nor more than five. Each 
new State was to be given equality with the older 
States ; religious liberty was guaranteed ; slavery 
was forbidden ; and unusual provision was made for 
public education. In 1788, Marietta was founded as 
the first settlement under the Ordinance (see also 
p. 266). 

Washington wished to retire to private life at the 
end of his first term in 1793, but he was 

Washington n t , • n i 

re-elected, iDcrsuaded to scrvc again, and he was again 

1792 

unaiiimoush" elected, the only one of our 
Presidents who has had that distinction. 

During Washington's administration the French 
people overthrew the burdensome rule of their Bour- 
bon kings and set up a republic. But the 

France calls i p th x t p 

upon the people 01 France were not prepared lor 
staters for Orderly republican forms of government, as 
^^^^ were the Americans, by a long period of 

self-government. They went to great extremes and 
fell under the control of violent men who were guilty 

^ To the teacher : Interesting incidents in frontier adventure 
may be found in Roosevelt's " Winning of the West.'' 



ATTITUDE OF GREAT BRITAIN 169 

of great crimes in the name of liberty. In the course 
of time France went to war with the other nations of 
Europe and called on the United States to redeem 
pledges of help and assistance made in the treaty of 
1778. Washington and his advisers refused assist- 
ance to the new republic, chiefly on the ground that it 
was not waging a war of defence, but one of attack 
or aggression. 

The majority of the people of the United States 
sympathized with the French people as the European 
champions of democracy against monarchy. The 
minister sent to the United States by France was 
Edmond Genet, or '^Citizen" Genet, as he was called. 
He landed at Charleston, South Carolina, and was 
received with so hearty a welcome that he improper 
thought he could drive the Federal govern- t*he"Fl-ench 
ment into war against Great Britain "^^^^ister 
through the force of popular opinion. He tried to stir 
up the people to equip privateers to prey upon British 
commerce, and he behaved in a manner so highly 
improper that Washington requested the French 
government to recall him and disavow his actions. 

By insisting on the neutrality of the United 
States, Washington gained for the country the ill- 
will of the new French government. In a general 
way, his policies favored Great Britain; but Great 
Britain was causing much irritation in this country 
through its persistence in holding some of 
the western forts, such as Ontario and Great 
Detroit, and by frequently impressing 
American sailors into her service when her war ves- 
sels found them on the high seas. Washington sent 



170 FEDERAL UNION 

Chief Justice Jay to England to settle these differ- 
ences ; bnt the Jay treaty which Washington felt com- 
pelled to sign was, except with regard to the western 
forts, unsatisfactory, and it raised a storm of protest 
against Washington himself when its terms became 
known. 

Near the close of his second term, in 1796, Wash- 
ington made it clear that he would not again serve. 
Political differences had now be- 
come sharply defined. John Adams 
was put forward as the Federalist 
John Adams Candidate, while Thomas 
presfdent, Jcffcrsou was rccoguizcd 
^^^^ as the leader of the op- 

jDosition, which came to be known 
as the Republican or Democratic- 
Republican party, and which later 
became the Democratic party. 

Adams received 71 electoral votes ; , Bom Braintree. Massa- 
chusetts, It So; colonial 

Jefferson, 68. In accordance with ^^^:^¥Z^^^ 

the custom at that time, Adams -^ 'S^^'^^^^t^ 

was elected President, and Jeffer- ^:s!^^U!Si^^^^ 

son, although of the opposite party, ' 

was declared Vice-President. Such was tlie outcome 

of the first political struggle for the Presidential 

office.i^ 

The early days of the administration of John 
Adams brought fresh troubles with France. Adams 

"Before Washington retired from the Pi-esidency, lie issued 
a farewell address to the people of the United States, in which he 
waraed his countrymen against sectional jealousies, party vio- 
lence, and entangling alliances with foreign nations. 




JOHN ADAMS 



CONTROVERSY WITH FRANCE 171 

recalled James Monroe as minister to that republic ; 
but Monroe, as a follower of Jefferson, was popular 
with the French government and people. The Frencli 
government refused to receive his successor, and 
proceeded to seize American vessels and mc'rchandise. 
Adams caHed Congress together and sent controversy 
three special envoys to Paris. At Paris, ^'^^ ^^^^<^® 
proposals were made to the envoys that if money 
were paid over, all difficulties could be adjusted.^^ 
When, the report of these proceedings reached Amer- 
ica, popular feeling turned against France. In all 
probability war would have been declared, but for the 
intervention of Napoleon 'Bonaparte, who ordered 
French officials to let American shipping alone.^- 

In spite of the popular support of the Federalists 
in opjjosing Frencli aggression, that party was losing 
favor. It was believed that its leaders were endeav- 
oring to suppress the liberties of the people, and 
especially the rights of the States. This distrust 
was greatly increased when the Federalist majority 
in Congress sought to make use of the government to 
stop criticism of the Administration. In 1798, 

^^ The French agents who made these proposals were called 
X, Y, and Z, and the affair has gone into histoiy as the " X, Y, Z 
letters." C. C. Pinckney, one of the American envoys, is reported 
to have exclaimed, on hearing* these proposals : " Millions for 
defence, bnt not one cent for tribute ! " 

^' There was some fighting on the sea, however, and Conmio- 
dore Trnxtun, in command of the Constellation, had two sharp 
engagements with strong French war vessels, in both of which he 
came off victorious. There was also some privateering; but peace- 
ful relations were resumed under agreements signed in Septeml)er, 
ISOO. 



172 FEDERAL UNION 

measures were passed, known as the ^^ Alien and 
Sedition Laws. ' ' The Alien law gave power to the 
President to expel from the country, with- 
sedition out trial, any foreigner whom he might 
*^^ regard as being dangerous to the peace and 

safety of the country. The Sedition law made it a 
crime to publish false or malicious writings against 
the government, and it provided for a fine or impris- 
onment for those who might combine in opposition to 
any measure or measures of the government.^"^ 

These acts appeared to Jefferson and the Demo- 
cratic-Republican party as an attack upon the free- 
dom of the press and of the individual. To oppose 
or denounce the acts rendered a person liable to 
prosecution; so that Jefferson and Madison deter- 
mined to strike at them through the action 
and Virginia of State legislatures. Consequently, Jef- 
ferson persuaded the legislature of Ken- 
tucky to pass resolutions declaring the Alien and 
Sedition laws unconstitutional, and therefore 'Woid 
and of no force. ' ' Madison, the ' ' father of the Con- 
stitution," induced the legislature of Virginia to pass 
similar resolutions. The Kentucky resolutions pre- 
sented the doctrine of nullification, or the right of a 
State to decide for itself whether a law was constitu- 
tional or within the powers originally ^'delegated" 
by the States to the Federal government.^* 

^ The Alien law was aimed at eeiiain editoi^ of Democratic- 
Republican newspapers who had made themselves especiallj' ob- 
noxious to the Administration and the Federalist party. 

" This alleg-ed right of a State to nullify Federal law was 
exercised by almost eveiy State in the Union up to the time of 



JEFFERSON ELECTED PRESIDENT 173 

Perhaps Jefferson and Madison might have 
spared their expressions in the Kentucky and Vir- 
ginia resolutions, for the Alien and Sedition laws 
were overwhelmingly condemned by the people. Such 
measures were doomed to perish, and from that time, 
Federalist power began to wane. Wash- 
ington, although not a party man, could no defeat; 
longer be appealed to by his Federalist jefferson 
friends, for Washington had died on the Pr^esfdent, 
14th of December, 1799. Besides, since ^^"^ 
Hamilton and Adams were not kindly disposed to 
each other, dissensions split the Federalist ranks. 
Consequently, Adams was defeated for re-election, 
receiving but 65 votes, against a tie vote of 73 each 
for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, the Demo- 
cratic-Eepublican leaders. Congress, called upon to 
decide between Jefferson and Burr, chose the 
former. Burr became Vice-President.^^ 

national consolidation effected in 1861-'65. (See pp. 184-276.) 
This form of " State rights " was an inheritance from the Ameri- 
can Revolution and from the local self-government which preceded 
the Revolution. To-day, the decision of the United States 
Supreme Court is accepted as final with regard to all such 
questions. 

^^ The Federalists were defeated in the executive and legisla- 
tive departments of the government, but Adams, who, at that time, 
honestly distrusted Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans, 
made use of his remaining time in office to establish Federalists in 
every position possible in the judicial department. His most im- 
portant appointment was that of John Marshall as Chief Justice. 
Marshall remained the head of the United States Supreme Court 
from 1801 to 1835, and, through his decisions there, did every- 
thing possible to extend and strengthen the power of the Federal 
Government. 



174 



FEDERAL UNION 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 
In reading the history of the Revolutionary period, we seem 

Lessons from to take for granted that Washington would, in due 

the life of time, give up his sword and commission and become 

Washington ^^.^-^ ^ private citizen of Virginia. But the histoiy of 

the world before that time shows that successful generals and 

leaders seized power for themselves. 

In 1782, many officers of the ..______. 

Continental army, in addition to 

leading citizens, became convinced 

that, since republics had always 

failed in the past, a republican f oitq 

of government could not succeed at 

any time. One of these officers, who 




A crown 
offered to 
Washington 



had often been the medium for the 
expression of the camp, suggested to 
Washington that he shouKl allow 
himself to be proclaimed a Pro- 
tector, like Cromwell, or a Dictator, 
such as Napoleon afterwards be- 
came in the French Republic; or 
even a " king/' like George III, if 

the popular objection to 

the last title could be 

overcome. Washington 

was not only not flat- 
tered, but felt hurt that any one 
could suggest such a course to him. 
He expressed himself so forcibly in 
his reply that no one ever dared to 
bring up the matter again. He 

closed his letter to that officer with the following words : ^' If you 
have any regard for your country, concern for yourself or pos- 
terity, or respect for me, banish these thoughts from your mind, 
and never communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a senti- 
ment of the like nature.'' 

We have read briefly of the defeats suffered by Washingion 
and the Continental troops at Brandywine and Germantown; yet, 
in that campaign, Washington eagerly sought a third battle which 
the British threatened for a time, but which they did not offer. 
Beveridge, in his " Life of John Marshall," tells the story of 



MARTHA WASHINGTON 

Born Martha Dandridge, of Vir- 
ginia, 1732; married Daniel Parke 
Custis, a wealthy planter, 1749; 
after the death of Custis, she mar- 
ried, in 1759, George Washington. 
The wealth that became hers after 
the death of her first husband did 
not influence either her or George 
Washington to take sides against 
the patriot cause. They preferred 
to risk all on behalf of their country- 
men. She was born the same year 
as George W'ashington and sur- 
vived him three years. Died 1802. 



WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE 175 

that threatened attack and how Washington was prepared to 
meet it : ^" 

" Although Washington refused to throw his worn and hun- 
gry troops upon the perfectly prepared and victorious enemy 
entrenched in Philadelphia, he was eager to meet the British in 
the open field. But he must choose the field. So when, early in 
December, Howe's army marched out of Philadelphia, the Ameri- 
cans were ready. Washington had taken a strong posi- Washington's 
tion on some hills. After much manoeuvering by the preparation 
British and deadly skirmishing by detachments of the against 
patriots, the two armies came into close contact. Not threatened 

more than a mile away shone the scarlet uniforms of attack, Dec, 

1777 
the Royal troops; but Washington refused to be 

lured from his advantageous ground. Apparently, the. British 
were about to attack and a decisive battle was about to be fought. 
. . . ' The American chief,' wrote Marshall, ' rode through 
every brigade of his army, delivering in person his orders respect- 
ing the manner of receiving the enemy, exhorting his troops to 
rely principally on the bayonet, and encouraging them by the 
steady firainess of his countenance, as well as by his words, to a 
vigorous performance of their duty.' . . . Finally the British, 
seeing the resolute front of the Americans, and already bleeding 
from the fierce thrusts of Morgan's Virginia riflemen, suddenly 
withdrew to Philadelphia, and Washington's army went into 
winter quarters on the hills of Valley Forge.'' 

At Valley Forge, those whose duty it was to supply food 
failed miserably: 

" Two days before Christmas there was ' not a single hoof of 
any kind to slaughter, and not more than twenty-five ban-els of 
flour.' Men died by the score from starvation. Most of the time 
' fire cake,' made of dirty, soggy dough, and warmed over smoky 
fires, was the only sustenance. Sometimes, testifies Marshall him- 
self, soldiers and officers ' were absolutely without -rtr t.- 4. 
food.' . . . What held the patriot forces together at at Valley 

this time? George Washington, and he alone. Had he Forge, 

1777-'78 
died, or had he been seriously disabled, the Revolution 

would have ended. Had typhoid fever seized him for a month; 

had any of those diseases, with which the army was plagued, 

confined him, the patnot standard would have fallen forever." 

^^By pemiission of the author, the quotation is slightly 
changed for adaptation to this volume. 



176 



FEDERAL UNION 



Thomas Jefferson and Robert Morris were the men who 

planned our present simple coinage sj'stem. Had it not been for 

their work, we might still be strug-gling- with the cum- 

New system bersome British table with its pounds, shilling's, pence, 

etc. Thomas Jefferson desired also to introduce the 

decimal system in weights and measures. In this respect, we still 

bold on to the older customs brought over from England. 

The first Federal census under the Constitution showed that 

the State of Virginia led in population. Pennsyl- 

First census, yania was second, and North Carolina third. Pro- 
1790 

portionalh" few people lived in large cities or towns. 
Compare both of these statements with the latest figures in popula- 
tion and its distribution. 




A STAGE COACH 

These vehicles, prior to 1730, were without springs of any kind. After 1750, 
stage coaches were built with contrivances which gave a swinging motion to the body. 
In 1770, President Quincy of Harvard College wrote: "One pair of horses took us 18 
miles. We generally reached our resting place for the night, if no accident inter- 
vened, at 10 o'clock, .... with a notice that we should be called at 3 o'clock 
next morning: .... and then, whether it snowed or rained, the traveler 
must rise and make ready by the help of a horn lantern and a farthing candle, and 
proceed on his way over bad roads, sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift 
the coach out of a quagmire or rut, and arriving at New York after a week's travel, 
wondering at the ease with which our journey was effected." 

Except Baltimore and Charleston, the large towns were in 
the Middle States and in New England. The people of the South - 
and West were almost wholly engaged in agriculture. Their imple- ■ 
ments were very crude. They merely stirred up and loosened the 



INVENTION OF THE COTTON-GIN 177 

soil as best tliey could with a plow whicli was made entirely, or 

almost entirely, of wood. Thomas Jefferson was one of those 

who worked out improvements in the ploM^; but it was not until 

1855 that the chilled iron plow was invented by James . . ,. 

Oliver, of Indiana. In 1900, it was estimated that " ten at the begin- 

million American farmers cultivate more land than one "*^s of the 

hundred million agricultural families in Asia, where 

wooden plows are still used." In colonial days, sickles had been 

used to cut the wheat. In 1800, grain cradles came into use; in 

1831, Cyrus McCormick, a Virginia farmer, invented the reaper, 

which did as much for the development of the West as Whitney's 

cotton-gin did for the South. 

Little was known or thought about the use of fertilizers or of 

the conservation of soil, of forest, or of native birds and other 

animals. In the course of time some of these American _ ., 
,.,,.,, , . , Failure to 

birds and annuals became almost or entirely extinct, conserve 

Almost every one knows what happened to the buffalo ; natural 

but few know of the extinction of such birds as those 

wild " pidgeons " referred to by the first settlers at Jamestown 

(p. 21)." 

In a previous chapter (p. 85), we have seen how the raising 
of rice and indigo was aided by the efforts of a South Carolina 
girl. Also, in the Southern States, there was an even more re- 
markable increase in the raising of cotton, due to the invention of 
the cotton-gin. Although it seems that some crude ap- invention of 
pliances had been in use for separating the seed from the cotton- 
the cotton, Eli Whitney, a Massachusetts school teacher ^^^' 
in Georgia, invented a cotton-gin which enabled a person to clean 
one hundred pounds of cotton in the time it formerly took to 
clean one pound. Whitney brought his invention to general notice 
in 1793, and cotton soon became the leading export of the United 
States. 

The immensely increased value of cotton made negro slave 
labor in the South very much more profitable than before. It 
increased the slave trade in African negroes, a traffic which at one 
time was highly profitable to Great Britain and which began in 
the New England colonies as early as 1636 (see p. 49). New 
England had long been famous for her well-built ships and hardy 

" The American wild pigeon disappeared at a comparatively 
recent date. 
12 



178 FEDERAL UNION 

sailors. Some of these ships sailed regularly from Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, and Massachusetts, carrj^ing merchandise to the West 
Indies. Here they took on cargoes of tropical products, chiefly 
sugar and molasses, and returned to the New England coast, where 
the sugar and molasses were made into rum. With rum 

The African ^^^^ beads and trinkets they sailed for Africa and 
slave trade; , mi 

and slavery bought negroes. The negroes were sometimes captured 
in the jjy ^vhite men ; but, of tener, they were war-slaves of the 

States various tribes and a number of them were cannibals. 

The negroes were packed on board of the ships and 
brought over to be sold in the markets of the coast towns of the 
South. They were bought by planters and put to work in the 
rice and cotton fields. At the hands of Americans they received 
far better treatment than the best they could expect as slaves or 
captives in Africa or anywhere else at that time. Their manners 
and morals improved in contact with a high type of civilization, 
so that, in two generations, the lowest grades of " voodoo " savages 
were raised hundreds of yeai-s in the scale of human jDrogress. 

A provision of the Constitution (Article I, Section IX), which 
was insisted upon by the Middle States, including Maryland and 
The end of Virginia, made the African slave trade illegal after 
the African 1808; for, in addition to the moral objections to con- 
i]m^ ^^^^^' tinning the slave trade, there were also economic and 
political objections. The continued importation of 
negroes was regarded as a menace in many ways, and, although 
slavery existed in the Middle States, the people there were 
not extensively engaged in the slave trade, and they did not 
raise cotton, the product which especially seemed to require negro 
labor. It was after the invention of the cotton-gin and before 
this constitutional prohibition that the slave trade was most active. 
The New England shipping interests made large fortunes, and the 
export of cotton from the Southern States increased from almost 
nothing in 1790 to millions of pounds annually. 

A monument recently erected on the Potomac River at Shep- 
The story of terdstown. West Virginia, commemorates the inventive 
James genius of an American who worked out the model of a 

fh"™stTam-'*^ steamboat as early as 1781 and who, three years later, 
boat, launched the steamboat itself in the presence of General 

l784-'92 Gates and other officers of the Continental army. This 

American inventor was James Rumsey, of Maryland. At this 



.TRAVEL, POST ROUTES AND RATES 179 

time George Washington wrote encouragingly to Rumsey and 
warned him against those who might seize upon his ideas as their 
own. But Rumsey was poor, and Washington's kindly advice 
did not equip steamboats. Benjamin Franklin, however, who also 
was an inventor and scientist, became interested, and helped 
Rumsey to go abroad to get assistance. Rumsey, however, died in 
London just as he seemed about to get the help he needed. 

Not long after the early experiments of Rumsey, John Fitch, 
of Connecticut, constructed a steamboat that was more successful 
than Rumsey's; but he, too, failed to achieve permanent success 
in navigation. Besides Rumsey and Fitch, a number of other 
persons, from New England to Georgia, constructed steamboats; 
but it remained for Robert Fulton, of Pennsylvania, to become the 

" father of steamboat 

navigation." In 1807, ^^"°"'^„„, 
° ' success, 1807 

his first boat, the Cler- 
mont, made regular trips on the 
Hudson River between New York 
and Albany. Fulton had previously 
been abroad in England and France. 
In England, he had invented ma- 
chines for spinning flax and for 
Some of the pieces of colonial ^"^^^^^^'^^ ^ope. In France, he experi- 

china used by Benjamin Franklin meuted witll a "plunging boat" (a 
in the entertainment of his i • \ i -^i j i 

friends. Njow in collection of the submanne) and With torpedoes. 

Pennsylvania Historical Society. Napoleon was, for a time, interested 
in Fulton's ideas; but the French government would not assist 
him. In ISOG, he returned to the United States and gave first to 
his own countiy the greatest product of his inventive genius. 

There were no railways in the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, and the wagon roads were so bad that, over long dis- 
tances, it often cost more to carry products than the goods were 

worth. Passengers in the old stage-coaches had rough _ 

Travel and 
and uncertain traveling. In 1780, United States post- the early 

office routes had been established where the roads made p^^* routes 

it possible for fairly regular passage ; but letter postage 

was too expensive for popular use. Postage on ordinary letters 

varied from six to twenty-five cents, according to the distance. 

Colleges and schools for men and boys were established in 

the colonies long before the Revolution. Among the most noted of 




180 FEDERAL UNION 

the earlier colleges are: Harvard, founded in 1636 (p. 50); 
William and Mary, 1693; Yale, 1701; Princeton, 1746; Pennsyl- 
vania, 1719; Columbia, 1754. In these colleges, many of the 
foundei^ of the Republic were educated; while others, 
like George "Washington, were educated in the simplest 
of " field schools " or academies. The first college for women was 
established at Macon, Georgia. This was Wesleyan College, which 
awarded the fii'st degrees to its gi*aduates in 1840. Oberlin College, 
Ohio, one of the first of the co-educational institutions, opened its 
doors to both men and women in 1833. In 1841, it gi'anted its 
first degi-ees to women. 

To the teacher : It is interesting to suggest, or to ask for, the 
names of a number of articles, appliances, etc., now in every-day 
use, which were unknown to our ancestors at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century. These suggestions may be extended from the 
common sulphur match (first patented in the United States by 
Alonzo D. Phillips, of Massachusetts, in 1836) to anything in 
general use to-day. A good modem encyclopaedia will give the 
date of invention and the name of the inventor, together with an 
account of the crude contrivance which the invention supplanted. 
A series of descriptive and naiTative compositions along this line 
may be prepared for reading or recitation. 



CHAPTER IX 

Democratic-Republican Period, to the Close of 
Second War with Great Britain 

Difficulties with Foreign Nations. — On general prin- 
ciples, Jefferson was opposed to war and to the 
strengthening of the fighting forces of the Federal 
government ; but, at the beginning of his administra- 
tion in 1801, difficulties arose between the United 
States and the Barbary powers in North Africa. 
Previously, President Washington had felt com- 
pelled to make a humiliating treaty with those pirat- 
ical peoples, by the terms of which the 
United States bound itself to pay annual Barbary 
tribute. Jefferson now sent to the distant 
Medite:^ranean an armed force, which, after three 
years of severe fighting, accomplished its purpose 
of convincing the Mohammedan rulers of Tripoli, 
Algiers, and the other Barbary States that the United 
States would maintain its rights on the high seas ; so 
that thereafter commercial tribute and ransoms for 
the lives of United States sailors ceased.^ 

^ The nations of Europe also liacl been paying- tribute to the 
Barbary States in order to secure their ships and sailors from 
molestation. While in Europe, Jefferson had suggested to Euro- 
peans that it might be less expensive and more effeetive to make 
war against the pirates than to pay them tribute. Later, Jeffer- 
son's report as Seeretaiy of State led Congress to pass a bill 
authorizing the construction of warships for use in the Mediterra- 

181 



182 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



During liis administrations, Jefferson found it 
very difficult to r^ 
hold fast to Wash- 
ington's warning 
to keep out of ^ ' en- 
tangling alliances ' ' 
with the nations 
of Europe, for 
the whole of that 
continent was in- 
volved in bitter 

conflict. 

Franc e 
and Great Britain, 
the most powerful 
of the warring na- 
tions, were both in- 
clined to treat the 
young American 
Republic with in- 
difference or con- 
tempt. Neverthe- 
less, when Jeffer- 
son found out that 



Conditions 
in Europe 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 



Statue by Karl Bitter at the University of Vir- 
ginia, founded by Jefferson. Born in Virginia, April 
13, 1743; autfior of Declaration of Independence in 
Continental Congress, 177G; Governor of Virginia, 

NT 1 1779-81; succeeded Franklin as minister to Paris, 

a P O 1 e O n, by a 1784; first secretary of State under Washington; 
. Vice-President, 1797-1801; President, 1801-'09; 

secret treaty with secured Louisiana Territory by purchase and the 
. *^ Oregon country for the United States through ex- 

Spam, had secured pioration. DiedJuiy4, i826. 

the claims of the latter country to the Louisiana 

nean. These ships, however, were not put to any such use until 
Jefferson became President. Because of this report and similar 
suggestions, John Adams called Jefferson the father of the Ameri- 
can na^^. 



ACQUISITION Of LOUISIANA 



183 



territory, lie let it be known that the United States 
would make an alliance with Great Britain rather 
than have this treaty become effective. 

Jefferson had already proposed the purchase of 
a part of this territory in order to secure free pas- 
sage on the Mississippi for the trade of the western 
settlements. In 1803, Napoleon, fearing that the 

British would seize the 
Louisiana territory, sud- 
denly offered to sell the 
whole of it to 

Acquisition 
the U n 1 t e d of Louisiana, 
Ci 1 , X 1803 

States. A 
treaty was accordingly 
drawn up, by the terms 
of which Louisiana was 
purchased for $15,000,- 
000. Thus, Jefferson 
peacefully and perma- 
nently secured for the 
United States a territory greater than that tempo- 
rarily conquered by Napoleon for France at the 
sacrifice of millions of lives and infinite treasure. 

We are compelled, on various occasions in the 
course of United States history, prior to the period 
of consolidation in 1865, to explain the seemingly 
unreasonable stand taken by different States or 
groups of States against the actions of the Federal 
government. Sometimes these States protested be- 
cause they feared aggression by the central govern- 
ment, as shown by the passing of the Kentucky and 




James Monroe and Robert Livingston, 
as representatives of the United States 
Government in Paris, signing tlie treaty 
by which Louisiana was ceded to the 
United States for $15,000,000. 



184 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

Virginia resolutions (p. 172) ; or because they feared 
the power of a group of States. The purchase, 
therefore, of the Louisiana territory aroused great 
opposition in New England. The people of that 
section feared that, in the growth of the South and 
West, the New England States would have a steadily 
Opposition to diminishing voice in the councils of the Re- 
J^Loursfa^na; pubUc. Consequently, the legislature of 
seces's!oi°^ Massachusetts passed a resolution which 
asserted declared that the adding of the Louisiana 
territory to the Union "formed a new Confederacy 
to which the States united by the former compact 
[the Constitution] are not hound to adhere/^ In self- 
protection, a separate confederation or republic 
was proposed, which was to consist of the New Eng- 
land States, New York, and possibly New Jersey, 
where the Federalists still had a strong following. 
The Federalists, therefore, supported, for Governor 
of New York, Aaron 'Burr, who was out of harmony 
with Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican party. 
Alexander Hamilton, however, the greatest of the 
Federalists, was opposed to any such scheme. Burr 
was defeated in the election and, accusing Hamilton 
of having slandered him, challenged the latter to a 
duel in which Hamilton was mortally 

Burr's 

alleged wouudcd, July 11, 1804. The death of 
conspiracy jjamiltou arouscd great indignation 
against Burr and called especial, attention to the 
so-called conspiracy to establish a northern con- 
federacy. Popular opinion turned against the 
Federalists, and, in the Presidential election of 1804, 



BURR'S ALLEGED CONSPIRACY 



185 



Jefferson received 162 votes to 14 cast for C. C. 
Pinckney, his Federalist opponent.- 
Althou2:h Jefferson 



himself 



been 



had nimselt been sur- 
prised in securing so 
easily the whole of the 
Louisiana territory, he 
immediately planned 
not only to explore 
that country, but 
also to send an expedi- 
tion to the unknown re- 
gions beyond the Rocky 
Mountains north of the 
Spanish claims. The 
men selected to guide 
this hazardous explora- 
tion were Meriwether 
Lewis and William 
Clark, a younger brother 
of the George Eogers 
Clark who had, under 
Governor Jefferson, se- 




From Avery's History of The United States and 
Its People. Courtesyof The United States History 
Company, Cleveland 

MERIWETHER LEWIS, BY SAINT MEMIN 

Born Albemarle County, Virginia, Au- 
gust 18, 1774 ; private secretary to Thomaa 
Jefferson, 1801-03; with Captain Wil- 
liam Clark explored the Northwest from 
the mouth of the Missouri at St. Louis 
to the mouth of the Columbia on the 
Pacific, 1804-'06; Governor of Missouri 
territory, 1807. Died 1809. 



'The twelfth amendment to the Constitution, changing- the 
manner of casting the electoral vote, was ratified in 1804 (see 
p. 160, and also Appendix). George Clinton, a Democratic-Repub- 
lican from New York, was elected Vice-President. Burr was 
afterwards accused of trying to set up a separate or hostile govern- 
ment over the Louisiana territory. While evidence showed that he 
had started to equip an expedition headed for the southwest, he 
was acquitted of treasonable conduct by the United States Supreme 
Court. Jefferson did all he could to secure Buit's conviction, aud 
even accused Chief Justice Marshall of a desire to shield Burr. 



186 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

cured by conquest the ''Illinois country" (p. 142). 
With a small band of United States soldiers and Ken- 
tucky volunteers, Lewis and Clark set out from St. 
Louis in May, 1804. They worked their w^ay up the 
Lewis and Missouri Elver, crossed the ''Great 
expedition, Dividc, ' ' aud wcut dowu the Columbia 
i804-'06 River to the Pacific, claiming the entire 

' ' Oregon country ' ' for the United States. The expe- 
dition returned to St. Louis in September, 1806, and 
the records of their travel show that they had to con- 
tend with innumerable difficulties, besides facing the 
constant danger of attacks by fierce Indian tribes. In 
due time, hunters, trappers, and b'ettlers followed the 
course of Lewis and Clark. Five years after their 
return to St. Louis, Astoria was established as a 
trading post at the mouth of the Columbia Eiver.^ 

While Jefferson was planning for the peaceful 
expansion of this Republic, Europe continued either 
in a state of war or in preparation for it. France, 
under Napoleon, endeavored to control most of the 
continent of Europe; Great Britain, on the other 
Non-inter- li^ud, rulcd tlic sca. As stated, both great 
course acts powcrs dcspiscd the weakness of America, 
so that the commerce of the United States was almost 

^ Meriwether Lewis was a true type of American pioneer and 
explorer. He had expressed a desire to lead such an expedition in 
1792, when he was but nineteen years old. In 1806, an expedition 
under Zebulon M. Pike set out from St. Louis to explore the 
Louisiana cession. Pike's course lay through several of the present 
States of the middle West to the central parts of Colorado. Pike's 
Peak, one of the hig-hest mountains in the Rocky Mountain range, 
bears his name to-day. 



NON-INTERCOURSE ACTS 



187 



wholly crushed between the blows of the belligerents 
in their desperate efforts to cripple each other's re- 
sources. Protests made by the United States had 




,■^1. pli( 11 Demtur, of the American Navy, shoot iiMs' a 'I i ipolitan in an 
attack upon pirate gunboats in the harbor of Tiipoh, August d, lbU4. 
Decatur is himself saved by the sacrifice of an American sailor who puts 
himself between the officer and another Tripolitan. 

little or no weight ; so Jefferson persuaded Congress 
to pass bills to prevent all intercourse with the war- 



188 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

ring nations. It was believed that if tlie United 
States refused to trade with Great 'Britain the mer- 
chants of that country, unable to sell their goods in 
America, would compel Parliament to change its 
policy towards neutral commerce. Moreover, Great 
Britain would be shut off from cotton and other raw 
material, for which the manufacturers had been very 
largely dependent upon the United States.^ 

One of fliese measures, known as the Embargo 
Act, forbade all vessels to sail from American ports 
for Europe until the rights of neutrals should be 
recognized. Lmnediately, a storm of protest went 
up from all the shipping interests of the country. 
The southern planters could not sell their cotton; 
and the merchants of the seaports, with all 
Act; those dependent upon them, were shut out 

of their means of livelihood. Feeling in New 
England was so aroused that there was open defiance 
of the act. The people began to evade it just as they 
had evaded the navigation acts of the British Parlia- 
ment. When a bill was passed by Congress to enforce 
the embargo, the legislatures of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut declared, in terms not unlike those of the 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions (p. 172), that the 
act was unconstitutional and that its provisions 
should not be obeyed. In the face, therefore, of 

'*It is, of coiii^se, impossible to say what might have happened; 
but careful examination of British jniblifations seems to show that, 
but for the opposition to, and the frequent evasion of, the non- 
intercourse acts in the United States, the British importers and 
manufacturers would have compelled Parliament to yield the 
points for which the United States government was contending. 



MADISON ELECTED PRESIDENT 189 

threats of nullification and of secession, Congress felt 
compelled to give np the embargo, although a non- 
intercourse policy with France and Great Britain was 
further urged and attempted.^ 

At this time, Jefferson, having approached the 
end of his second term, declined, like Washington, 
to be a candidate for a third time. James Madison, 
of Virginia, and George Clinton, of 
New York, the Demo- Madison 
cratic-Republican candi- pr^e^'sMent, 
dates, carried, with the ^^^^ 
exception of Delaware, all the 
States south and west of New Eng- 
land. In New England the Feder- 
alists regained their former power 
and swept that section French 
BirvrrZ"M..ch because of the dissatis- >«^"-'°- 
^i^'co^^'^S^; faction with the policies of the 

member Constitutional j g 

Convention; as a prominent gOVemment. 

framer of the new form of t 'i t jv -\ r -f 

government, called "father LilKe J eiierSOn, MadlSOU CX- 

of the Constitution" ;Secre- , t i . i« • n ,^n , , i 

tary of State under Jeff er- Crtcd himsell lU tllC eiTOrt tO kcCP 

son; President, 1809-17. ^ 

Died June 28. 1836. tho Americau people out of the 
European war. Both belligerents, however, continued 
to violate the neutral rights of the United States. 

^ To the teacher : Those who in the Southern States depended 
upon the shipment of cotton, tobacco, etc., also suffered by the 
embargo; but their opposition was less keen, partly because the 
sentiment of opposition was less well organized and because the 
legislation in question was urged by the political party which they 
supported. 

^ The Federalist candidates were not, however, from that sec- 
tion. They were C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, and Rufus 
King, of New York. 




190 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

Napoleon issued a proclamation stating that lie would 
revoke his decree against neutral commerce. Conse- 
quently, Congress suspended the non-intercourse act 
with regard to France ; but, when considerable Amer- 
ican shipping was within his reach, Napoleon issued 
orders to seize it. 

On the other hand, Great Britain had continued 
to impress American sailors, and, in 1807, the British 
frigate Leopard fired on the American frigate Chesa- 
peake, on the ground that the Chesapeake was with- 
holding British subjects. The Chesapeake was un- 
prepared for battle and was obliged to yield to the 
demands of the commander of the Leopard. 
aggressions, The Amcricau government protested 
^^^^ against the outrage, but public opinion was 

divided. Some of the Federalists, inclined to favor 
Great Britain as a possible refuge from the alleged 
oppressions of their own government, upheld the 
actions of the Leopard. The British govermiient 
finally agreed to offer some reparation ; but when, in 
1811, the British minister arrived in America to make 
apology, an event had happened which, in a measure, 
served to avenge the assault upon the Chesapeake.'^ 

Ever since the attack on the Chesapeake, the 
The "Presi- officcrs and men of the few United States 
"Sttie^Beit" fi'igates were anxious to try conclusions 
affair, isu ^f^ii\ the British ; so that when the frigate 
President signalled the British corvette Little Belt 

' It should be remembered that British sailors did, from time to 
time, desert from British vessels and enter the service of American 
shippers, where the wages were higher and the conditions of ser- 
vice better. Also, British commerce had suffered to some extent 
through American privateering under the Fi^ench flag. 



COUNTRY UNPREPARED FOR WAR 19J. 

and received a shot in return, the American vessel lost 
no time in coming to action. The Little Belt was a 
smaller vessel, but fought courageously and lost 32 
of its crew before it was compelled to surrender. The 
President was little damaged and reported but two 
boys wounded. 

The " Second War for Independence." — The two 
countries were rapidly drifting into open war. The 
American minister expressed his unwillingness to 
remain in Great Britain, and returned to 
America. Wlien, also, it was found that against Great 
the Indians in the Northwest were supplied " ^^^' 
with British firearms and powder, the war spirit of 
the younger men in the Democratic-Republican party 
could no longer be held in check. In June, 1812, 
Congress declared war against Great Britain.^ 

Although Henry Clay, one of the leaders of the 
^ ^ war party' ' in Congress, had boasted that Kentucky 
volunteers alone could conquer Canada, the United 
States government was ill-prepared for war. The 
few thousand soldiers of the Federal army were scat- 
tered in western posts; the commanders were men 
too old for active service, and many of them had had 
no experience in handling large bodies of 
troops. The navy, of perhaps twelve effec- unprepared^ 
tive fighting ships, was insignificant in 
comparison with the mighty fleets of Great Britain. 
Even worse than the widespread lack of adequate 
preparation for war was the fact that sentiment in 

*In November, 1811, General Winiam Henry Harrison had 
defeated the Indiana at Tippecanoe Creek, in the Indian territory. 



192 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

the northeastern States was so opposed to it that 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut posi- 
tively refused to obey the Federal call for troops.^ 

On land, the early conduct of the War of 1812 
was marked by a series of humiliating disasters and 
defeats. The American military leaders were in- 
competent, the men were without proper training, 
and the mihtary supplies were poor in quality and 
insufficient. The first disaster occurred in the 
Northwest. General William Hull had advanced into 
Canada, but became disheartened and retired to 
Detroit. Here, without firing a shot, he surrendered 
to a force of British and Indians under General 
Disaster and Brock. Hull's Surrender left the British 
NorThind^^ in possession of the Michigan territory. 
Northwest rp|^jg disaster was followed in January, 
1813, by the defeat of General James Winchester on 
the Raisin River. In this battle the Americans lost 
practically their entire force, as at Detroit, and the 
British permitted, or at least failed to prevent, the 

^ In any country other than the United States, such a refusal 
to obey the central government would have been treason. It would 
be so regarded in this country to-day. Since the Republic had not 
yet become a nation, the States were as jealous of their long- 
accustomed right to judge and act for themselves as at any time 
in their histoiy as colonies. If, therefore, argued the people of 
these States, the Federal government purposed waging a war which 
seemed likely to ruin them or of which they did not approve, they 
would not take any part in it. They felt, also, that if the Federal 
government proposed leg-islation which they deemed unjust or 
injurious, it was not only the right but the duty of the State 
government to interfere for the protection of its citizens. It seems 
clear that our government was founded on a general consent to 
these pnnciples, which were maintained by States and groups of 
States until the close of the "War of Secession (see pp. 184-270)). 



ELECTIONS OF 1812 193 

massacre of the sick and wounded, together with 
many of the soldiers who had surrendered under the 
promise of protection. ^"^ The earlier campaigns con- 
ducted upon the northern border of New York proved 
equally disappointing to the Americans. Attempts at 
the invasion of Canada resulted in dismal failures, 
owing partly to the poor leadership of General Dear- 
born and to the conduct of the untrained militia. 

At the close of the year 1812, except for some 
ship duels on the sea, the government had continually 
faced defeat and disaster at the hands of the enemy, 
together with indifference and even hostility in some 
quarters at home. In the elections of 1812, Elections of 
the New England States were again found ^^^^ 
solidly arrayed against the Democratic-Republican 
party, and to these States were now added New York, 
New Jersey, and Delaware. The southern and 
western States, however, returned a large majority 
for the Administration. Madison was accordingly 
elected President for a second term, and the Federal 
government made preparations to prosecute the war 
with greater vigor.^^ 

The defeats during the first fourteen months of 
war were partly redeemed on Lake Erie by the 
splendid victory of the American naval forces under 
Captain Oliver H. Perry. This energetic young officer 

^^ The terrible cruelty of this massacre aroused the fig-hting 
spirit of the West; and when, in the course of time, the western 
troops were given better supplies and competent leaders they 
rushed confidently^ into battle Avith the eiy, " Remember the River 
Raisin ! " ' 

" DeWitt Clinton, of New York, and Jared Ingersoll, of Penn- 
sylvania, were the Federalist candidates for President and Vice- 
President. 



194 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



superintended the equipment of a small squadron to 
meet that of the British, and, after a spirited engage- 
ment on September 10, 1813, wrested from 
them the control of the lake. This victory 
paved the way for the advance of General 
Harrison in the Northwest. The ^dctor at 
Tippecanoe met the British and Indians under 
General Proctor and Chief Tecumseh in a battle on 



The 

Northwest 
regained, 
1813 



^: 




Commodore Oliver H. Perry on Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. Although 
Perry was forced to abandon his flagship, he resumed fighting on another vessel, but 
only after four-fifths of his own crew had been killed or wounded. This victory did 
much to offset the failures of the United States militia on the Canadian border. 

the Eiver Thames in Canada. Tecumseh was killed, 
and the British and Indians were so badly defeated 
that the Northwest territory passed again into the 
control of the United States.^^ 

^^ Tecnmseli had succeeded in arousing the Creek Indians in 
the Mississippi territoiy. Massacres of the whites followed, the 
worst of these taking- place at Fort Minis, Alabama. Andrew 
Jackson was sent against the southern tribes and, in a vigorous 
campaign, completely routed them. 



BRITISH CAPTURE WASHINGTON 195 

After the American attempts to invade Canada 
from the New York border had ended in failure, the 
British planned a counter-attack from the north. 
Accordingly, Sir George Prevost, with 14,000 men, 
invaded New York in cooperation with a naval force 
on Lake Champlain. On September 11, piattsburg 
1814, the British fleet was met and de- J^^^p^L, 
cisively defeated by the Americans under ^^^^ 
Commodore Macdonough. Although there was fight- 
ing on land between the British and Americans at 
Piattsburg, the naval battle decided the outcome of 
the whole campaign, and Prevost withdrew from the 
field. This fight on Lake Champlain has been rated as 
the greatest naval engagement of the War of 1812.^^ 

In connection with the invasion of New York from 
Canada as a land base, the British, free-handed and 
fresh from the first overthrow of Napoleon, sent a 
strong expedition up the Chesapeake Bay.^^ The War 
Department was wholly unprepared for this new in- 
vasion aimed at the headquarters of the Federal gov- 
ernment; moreover, the general in charge British 
of the defence of the Federal capital and the Washington, 
Chesapeake was weak and vacillating. Near ^"^- ^^ 
Bladensburg, a few miles outside of Washington, four 
hundred sailors under Commodore Barney stoutly 
opposed the British advance when the other troops 
had fled; but this small force was finally over- 

'' Mahan, " Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812," 
vol. ii. 

" Smaller expeditions had been sent against coast towns from 
New England to the Carolinas. These had plundered and burned 
at will, for there were no adequate defences provided against such 
attacks. 



196 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

whelmed and driven off. Barney was wounded and 
captured. Without meeting further opposition, the 
British took possession of Washington and burned 
the Capitol, together with many of the public build- 
ings and private dwellings.^ ^ 

The British now planned 
to take Baltimore. That port 
had been extremely active in 
sending out fast light-armed 
vessels to capture British 
merchantmen.^^ At North 
Point, east of Baltimore, 6000 
troops disembarked. These 
troops, under the command of 
General Ross, were to advance 
upon the city while the fleet 

Born Lancaster. Pennsylvania, bombardcd Fort McHcUry iu 

July 27, 1752. Served in Revolu- ii i i /-h i o( i 

tionary War and defended Fort thc liarbor. (jrenerai bamUCl 

Mifflin, in the Delaware River; ^ . , -, f» j i -r~» 

major-general of State militia in hmitll, a VCtcraU 01 the KCVO- 
defence of Baltimore against the 

British, 1814. Died 1839. lutiou, opposcd Ross with a 

force of about 3000 militia. 

^^ Before the battle at Bladeiisbiirg, the President and some of 
the members of his Cabinet narrowly missed captnre by the British. 
After the battle, they were eaiTied along* in the retreat of the 
panic-stricken anny of defence. The plans of the American com- 
mander were wretched thronghont. Commodore Barney, who had 
secured a semi-independent command, with but 400 men, inflicted 
hea\y h)sses upon a British force of 4000. He reserved his cannon 
and musket fire until the British lines were close upon him. 

^^ In the privateer Rossie, Barney had cajjtured, in forty-five 
days, fifteen vessels, valued at $1,289,000. It was chiefly these 
Baltimore-built " clipper " ships which had so harassed British 
commerce that it was difficult to get insurance at Lloyd's even on 
vessels crossing^ the Iiish Sea, 




GENERAL SAMUEL SMITH 



TREATY OF GHENT 197 

The outposts of the armies met unexpectedly, and 
General Eoss was shot by skirmishers. A sharp en- 
gagement followed, in which some 1700 of Battle of 
the American force held the British until fe^pt^to i4, 
ordered to fall back on the entrenchments ^^^^ 
around the city. This encounter took place on the 
12th of September, the day after Macdonough's vic- 
tory on Lake Champlain, and, as at Plattsburg, the 
British army awaited the action of their naval forces. 
The latter began the bombardment of Fort McHenry 
on the morning of September 13 and kept it up all 
that night. On the following morning the American 
flag still waved above the fort and the British were 
forced to withdraw in defeat very much as they had 
been forced to withdraw from Charleston in June, 
1776.1^ 

For some weeks, commissioners from the United 
States and Great Britain had been discussing terms 
of peace at Ghent; but the Americans would not 
accede to the British demands, and agreement seemed 
impossible. When, however, the news of Britisli 
defeats at Plattsburg and Baltimore 
reached London, the British ministry de- Ghent, 
cided to yield the points most objectionable ^'^* ' 
to the Americans, and a treaty was signed December 
24, 1814. This treaty left matters pretty much as they 

" The comparison receives added interest from the tact that 
with the British fleet was Sir Peter Parker, the grandson of that 
Sir Peter Parker who lost an ann at Charleston. The grandson 
lost his life in attempting to intercept reinforcements on the way 
to join the American forces. The defence of Fort McHeniy in- 
spired the writing of "The Star-Spangled Banner" (see p. 202). 



198 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



had been before the war. Nothing was said about 
search and impressment, but the United States had no 
further difficulty with Great Britain in these matters. 
News traveled across the Atlantic only as fast as 
sailing vessels could carry it, and the war in America 
went on. One of the plans of the British 
New Orleans, was to capturc Ncw Orlcaus and get pos- 

Jan. 8, 1815 . n ^.^ t ' ' 4r 'i T 

session ot the Louisiana territory. In 
December, about 8000 of Wellington's veterans dis- 




GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON ENCOURAGING THE AMERICAN TROOPS AT THE BATTLE 
OF NEW ORLEANS, JANUARY 8, 1815 



embarked and advanced on New Orleans, under the 
leadership of Sir Edward Pakenham. Opposed to 
them were between five and six thousand American 
troops under the command of Andrew Jackson. 
Jackson displayed great energy and skill in arrang- 
ing his men ; he well knew the coolness and accurate 
marksmanship of his Tennessee and Kentucky rifle- 



ADMISSION OF LOUISIANA 199 

men, and he had inspired the Louisiana militia with 
confidence to face the British regulars. When the 
British attacked the American entrenchments on 
January 8, 1815, they were met by a more deadly fire 
than they had ever faced in Europe. Even Welling- 
ton's veterans fell back in dismay. Pakenham him- 
self fell, together with over two thousand of his men ; 
while the Americans lost but 71 in killed and wounded. 
Some weeks later came the belated news of the treaty 
of Ghent, and hostilities ceased in the United States 
(see p. 201 for last fight of the Constitution). 

When Jackson had fought his campaign against 
the Indians (p. 194), he led his troops through what 
had been known a few years before as West Florida, 
a part of the Spanish possessions in North America. 
In 1810, however, the inhabitants had seized the fort 
at Baton Eouge, declared their independ- Admission of 
ence, and asked for annexation to the f^"^^^^^^' 

^ 1812 

United States. A new State, formed out of 

this and the Orleans Territory, was called Louisiana 

and admitted to the Union in 1812.^^ 

Great opposition to admitting Louisiana into the 
Union was expressed in the New England States 
(see p. 184). Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, 
declared, on the floor of Congress, that the admission 
of Louisiana dissolved the bonds of the Union, and 
that it was the duty, as well as the right, of some 
of the imperilled States to prepare for a separation 
' ' amicably, if they can, violently, if they must. ' ' This 

" The " Orleans TeiTitoiy " ref eired to the teiTitoiy now 
included in the State of Louisiana. The " District of Louisiana " 
embraced the remainder of the " Louisiana Purchase." 



200 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



and secession 

sentiment, 

1812-1815 

Hartford 

Convention 



alleged grievance in the admission of southern and 
western States, the prosecution of the war against 
Nullification Great Britain, and the policies of the Demo- 
cratic-Republican party so inflamed the 
I *^® discontent in New England that it was pro- 
posed, in addition to the measures already 
taken in opposition to the Federal government, to call 
a convention of Federalist leaders to decide on some 

definite plan for 
action. This con- 
vention met at Hart- 
ford, December 15, 
181-1-. After some 
weeks of discussion 
secret sessions, 



„ ' Natchez ^ ^T 

fs MISSISSIPPI TERRITO^** 

•S\ i7^98 J U 

q-jj \'(^Jo — tT'^ >'■'-*'''-"' 

'■.ized by the^I' United StatesASW '^%p 
Ctahned\by S2)ain \ aJfle^ 




Map of the British campaign against New 
Orleans. On the way to New Orleans a British 
squadron of warships and a land force attempted 
to capture Fort Bowyer, at the entrance to Mobile 
Bay. This fort was successfully defended by 130 
to 160 menunder Major William Lawrence. These 
inflicted upon the British a loss of 162 in killed, 
besides those wounded and captured. 



m 

delegates were sent 



to Washington to 
state their griev- 
ances and propose 
amendments to the 
Constitution. They arrived in the Federal capital 
only to hear the news of the treaty of peace and of the 
victory at New Orleans. Consequently, no action 
was taken. 

The Federalists were so discredited in public 
opinion that, in the election of 1816, their candidate 
for President, Eufus King, of New York, received 
the votes of but three States: Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and Delaware. James Monroe, the Repub- 
lican-Democratic candidate, received the votes of the 
remaining sixteen States. Witli him was elected 
Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, Vice-President. 



"OLD IRONSIDES" 



201 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

It is impossible to present, in the limits of this volume, ex- 
tended accounts of the naval engagements of the War of 1812. 
The most famous of the American frigates was the Constitution. 
In August, 1812, she defeated the frigate Guerriere. 
The Guerriere was inferior in fighting force, but the jj^^^gj^gg,, 
Constitution was handled by Captain Isaac Hull with 
such skill that the British vessel was helpless in half an hour. 
Under Captain Bainbridge. the Conatiluliun had a much more 





CAPTURE OF THE "CTANE" AND "lEVANT" BY THE "CONSTITUTION" 

February 20, 1815. This naval combat took place near the Madeira Islands 
nearly two months after peace had been declared between Great Britain and the 
United States. 

severe encounter with the frigate Java off the coast of Brazil in 
December, 1812. This engagement lasted two hours and the 
British vessel lost one-third of her crew. The Java was a total 
wreck. After this, the Constitution was blockaded in Boston until 
New Year's Day, 1814. Off the Madeira Islands, on the 20th of 
February, 1815, nearly two months after peace had been declared, 
the Constitution defeated and captured two British war vessels in 
the last great fight of her remarkable career. (Read Oliver 
Wendell Holmes' poem, " Old Ironsides.") 



202 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



On page 191 mention is made of two boys as having been 
wounded on board the President. The United States Naval 
Academy was not then in existence, so that boys obtained their 
entire naval education at sea. In the War of 1812, Dav-id G. 
Midshipmen Farragut, of Tennessee, Nathaniel Duncan Ingraham, 
Farragirt and of South Carolina, and others, were " called to the 
ngra am colors " before they were twelve years old. Farragut 
became the first Admiral of the United States navy and served on 
the Union side in the War of Secession. Ingraham, -in command of 
the ^S*^. Louis, won distinction in the United States na^7^ and after- 
wards became a commodore in the service of the Confederacy. 

Out of fifteen ship duels in the War of 
1812, the American naA^ lost but three. 

Off the Massachusetts coast, in 
the " Chesa- June, 1813, the British frigate 
peake," June, Shannon challenged and de- 
1813 

feated the Chesapeake, com- 
manded by Captain Lawrence. The Shan- 
non was so well handled that, in fifteen 
minutes, the Chesapeake was helpless and 
her commander mortally wounded. Law- 
rence's last words, as he lay dying, " Don't 
give up the ship," were chosen as a motto 
by Perry when he went into the battle of 
Lake Erie a few months later. 

During the night of the bombardment of the^ war of 1812, and the 
Fort McHenry, at Baltimore, Francis Scott War with the Barbary 

•| ^ Till n ^ States, 1S15. Killedinduel 

Key anxiously paced the deck of the with Commodore Barron, 

Minden, where, under a flag of truce, he 

had gone to secure the release of an American physician. That 
night the fate of the city was in the balance. When, 
in the morning. Key saw the American flag still flying, 
he wrote on the back of a letter the words of " The 
Star-Spangled Banner," which has become our 
national anthem. 
During the War of 1812, there were many brave deeds done 
by men who were in command of small bodies of troops. On 
one occasion. General Harrison sent orders to the j^outhful 
Major George Croghan to set fire to Fort Stephenson (now 
Fremont), Ohio, and to retire before a rapidly advancing force of 
British and Indians, Fort Stephenson had a garrison of 160 men 




5, i< 



COMMODORE STEPHEN 
DECATUR 

Born Maryland, January 



served in Tripoli, 



Birth of 
"The Star- 
Spangled 
Banner," 
Sept. 14, 1814 



BRAVERY OF THE CREEK INDIANS 203 

and but one small cannon. Croghan was so anxious to fight that 
lie promptly sent back word : " We are determined to maintain 
the place, and by Heaven we will !" The British were ^^jor 
led by General Proctor, who threatened a general croghan 
massacre by his Indian allies, if there should by any resistance 
by the Americans. Croghan replied that there would be resistance; 
but that, if the fort should be taken, there would be no one left to 
massacre. After an all-night bombardment of the stockade, the 
British and Indians advanced to the attack. Although the attack- 
ing forces outnumbered the Americans about four to one, they 
were repulsed at every point. Croghan concealed his one cannon 
until a heavy column of the enemy advanced along the line of a 
ditch. He then opened fire with great effect. Croghan lost but 
eight men killed and wounded, while the British and Indians 
lost a number nearly equal to the entire American force. 

A somewhat similar independence of action was displayed by 
General Samuel Smith, when the British attacked Baltimore, He 
refused to yield command of the Mainland militia to General 
Winder, of the Federal army, upon whom may be laid General 
much of the blame for the defeat at Bladensburg and Samuel 
the capture of Washington (see p. 195). Smith kept ^""'^^ 
his command, saved Baltimore, and possibly Philadelphia, from 
capture by the British, for General Ross had declared his purpose 
of making Baltimore the British headquarters for the coming 
winter season. 

In the Southwest, the Creek Indians (p. 194) fought as 
bravely as any white troops. They had been stirred to action by 
Tecumseh and his brother, " The Prophet." Tecumseh is said to 
have declared that the southern Indians would hear 
the stamp of his foot all the way from Detroit. bive% of 
Shortly aftemvards, there was an earthquake shock, the Creek 
and the Indians were fully convinced that it was the ^ ^^^ 
" stamp " of Tecumseh. The Indians never fought more flereely 
than in this war, and when Jackson and his men suiTounded them 
in their forts they would neither give up nor ask for quarter. 



CHAPTER X 

Democratic-Eepublican Period, from Close of War 
OF 1812 TO Beginning of Jacksonian Democracy 

Period of Growth and Political Harmony. — At the 
close of the War of 1812, the government was in 
debt, and the Democratic-Republican party felt com- 
pelled to take np a measure which 
had been advocated by Hamilton 
Bank of and the Federalists after 
?tail's%e- the Revolution. This was 
established ^^q establishment of the 
Bank of the United States. The 
twenty-year charter of the first 
Federal Bank had expired in 1811. 
The Bank was re-established in 
1816 and was granted, as before, a james monboe 
twenty-year charter. As we shall 28,'^ll^^t'c^ 

, , -, ., nental Army during Revo- 

See later, however, its UnpOpU- lutlon; Minister to France. 

, ., .,, ,, r> ,1 1794-'96; Secretary of 

larity with the masses Ol the state under Madison ;Pres- 

•^ f» J ident, 1817-'25; pro- 

people became the cause of a great ^l^imed ''Monroe boc- 

^ i^ *=" trine" in 1823. Died July 

political conflict under President 4, issi. 
Andrew Jackson. 

Of far greater importance than the re-establish- 
ment of the Bank of the United States was the sup- 
port given bv leading representatives of the 

A tariff for 1^ * ^. V. n- x ^ t^ i T x 

protection, Democratic-Republicaii party to i^ ederalist 

views in favor of a tariff, or import tax, for 

protection, in addition to the tariff for revenue. This 

change of policy not only served to split the Demo- 

204 




OBJECT OF TARIFF PROTECTION 205 

cratic-Eepublican party, but also prepared the way 
for serious sectional division; so that the tariff, 
united with the social question of slavery, soon 
divided the country into a North and a South with 
opposing interests. The agricultural interests of the 
South clashed with the manufacturing interests of 
the North, so that, for many years, patriots from 
either section endeavored to maintain ' ' a balance of 
power'' similar to that sought by rival nations in 
Europe.^ 

From Jefferson's administration until 1815, the 
non-intercourse acts and the War with Great Britain 
largely j:)revented imports. The American manu- 
facturer, therefore, had little competition during this 
period. At the close of the war, manufacturing in- 
terests besought Congress to ''protect" them against 
cheaper foreign goods by imposing a heavier tariff, 
or import duty. It was believed that if the foreign 
goods came in with a revenue tariff only, many of the 
recently-established American manufactories would 
be driven out of business. 

The southern and western States were largely 
devoted to agricultural pursuits and were not in- 
terested in manufactures; but John C. Calhoun, of 
South Carolina, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the 
two men chiefly responsible for the declara- 

, . . • . n X -D .^ . Object of 

tion 01 war against Great Britain, now tariff 

/> T T 1 J • /v i? protection 

came forward and proposed a tariff tor 
protection. Calhoun was opposed to the principle of 
protective tariffs, but he believed that if the pro- 

* To the teacher : See especially De Tocqiieville's " Democracy 
in America," published in 1835. 




206 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

tective tariff were granted for a brief period, the 
American manufacturers would become ' strong 
enough to get along without it. Clay believed that 
the West would be benefited by using the receipts 
from higher tariffs in the construction of Federal 
roads connecting the West with the East.^ 

At that time (1816), Daniel Webster, of Massa- 
chusetts, represented the shipping interests of New 
England. He therefore opposed the protective tariff. 
He saw what Calhoun failed to see^ — that the pro- 
tective rates were 
likely to 

The tariff as . "^ 

a sectional lUCrcaSe 

rather than 
decrease; and that if 
they did increase, 

MISSISSIPPI FLAT-BOAT 

there would be less de- Before the coming, in 1811, of the steam- 

, p . . boat west of the AUeghanies, produce was 

mand. tor American carried down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers 

, ' nn ^ 'n in " fiat-boats." These were sold or otherwise 

ShippinSf. A tariff bill disposed of at New Orleans, and the flat-boat 

^^ ^' ' men made their way northward as best they 

based on ^'protective" could by land. 
principles, was, however, passed over the protest of 
Webster and a large minority of the Democratic- 
Eepublican party. From that time, for a hundred 
years, there was to be political unrest over this sub- 
ject.^ To the period of the War of Secession, it was 

^ The South and the West were in the position of the " con- 
sumer," the North and the East, largely in the position of the 
manufacturer. The consumer tries to get the things he uses as 
cheaply as possible; and the manufacturer tries to get all he can 
for what he makes. 

^At the present time, or one hundred years after the passage 
of the tariff bill under discussion, it is believed by many that a 
tariff commission, provided for by the Federal Government, would 
take the tariff issue out of polities. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTHWEST 207 

largely a sectional issue. Some years after tlie war, 
however, the South began to develop its manufactur- 
ing and commercial resources, and, with this develop- 
ment, came considerable sentiment in that section in 
favor of a protective tariff. 

In 1800, the Federal Grovernment, under Jeffer- 
son's leadership, had adopted a liberal policy in 




THE "clermont" pulton's fiest steamboat 

In 1807 this vessel made its first trip from New York to Albany. The Clermont 
had been preceded by the steamboats of James Rumsey in Virginia, William Long- 
street in Georgia, and John Fitch on the Delaware; but Fulton made such great im- 
provements in his steamboat that steamboat navigation was continuous from the 
first trip of the Clermont to the present time. 

developing the public lands of the Northwest Terri- 
tory. It permitted settlers of small means to go into 
that territory and buy what they could pay ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 
for, part of the payment to be made after of the 

,. . .. ^ ii- Northwest 

the settler had got his ' ' start. ' ' From this 

time, the Northwest developed very rapidly. Ohio 

was admitted into the Union in 1803 ; in 1816 Indiana 

was admitted ; and Illinois became a State two years 

later.4 

* The Federalist plan, in keeping with the ideas of Hamilton, 
required that the land should be sold in large tracts. Under that 
plan only the wealthy were ahle to buy land for settlement. 



208 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

In order to aid settlement in the West, Congress 
began (1806) the ''National Eoad," which soon con- 
nected the rapidly-growing western towns with 
Washington and Baltimore through Wheeling, 
Cumberland, and Frederick. Later, a much-traveled 
State road connected Buffalo with Cleveland and 
other points. Steamboats also helped in developing 
the whole length of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, 
and the value of goods received at New Orleans in- 
creased by leaps and bounds. The whole Northwest, 
with its log cabins and its ''home-made^' clothes, 
furniture, and implements, represented "the country 
where men hewed out their own place in life. ' ' It was 
a great stronghold of democracy. 

The victories of Andrew Jackson and the con- 
sequent cessions of land by the Creek Indians brought 
about expansion and settlement in the Southwest. 
In 1812, the Mississippi Territory roughly 
of the included the country between Georgia and 

the Mississippi River. From this Territory, 
the States of Mississippi and Alabama were formed. 
Mississippi was admitted into the Union in 1817, and 
Alabama in 1819. 

The settlement of this territory, Avith its modes 
of life and social customs, was quite unlike that in 
the Northwest. Both sections were at first given 
over almost wholly to agriculture. The climate and 
crops were very different, however. The Northwest 
was devoted to the raising of wheat and corn and 
cattle ; the farms were generally smaller than in the 
South. Since labor was scarce, the settlers did the 



MAP SHOWING EXPANSION AFTER V/AR 



209 



bulk of it themselves and treated their '^help" on 
terms of equality. Living was far from easy and 
the hardships were great, especially in the winter 




Lougitude 90"' 



85° Greenwich 



MAP SHOWING WESTERN EXPANSION IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE WAR OP 1812 

season. In the Southwest, on the other hand, the 
winters were mild, but the heat of the summer made 
labor burdensome. There was one great crop, cotton, 
which promised yields not unlike those from the oil 
14 



210 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

wells of later times. Land was bought in large 
tracts and negro slaves were imported to work on 
Comparison large plantations. Those settlers who did 
and contrast ^^q^ bring slaves with them were forced to 
employ them, if they wished to achieve an equal 
measure of success. So completely was the land 
given over to the raising of cotton that the people 
were dependent upon the Northwest for meat and 
grain and upon the Northeast for almost every manu- 
factured article used on the farm or in the household. 
When cotton prices were high and the crops good, the 
people prospered; but, in general, the wealthiest 
planters lived in hospitable profusion and abundance 
rather than in luxury.^ 

During Monroe's administration, trouble arose 
on the Florida border. The Seminole Indians made 
raids on the neighboring States, and, after these 
raids, they would retreat into Spanish territory. The 
Purchase of scttlcrs cauic to bcUeve that the Indians 
Florida were encouraged and even aided by the 
Spanish. The Federal Grovernment sent Andrew 
Jackson to subdue the Seminoles; but, when the 

' To the teacher : It should also be made clear that life in the 
Soutlnvest and in the " Lower South " differed greatly from life 
in the upper southern States, such as Virginia, Kentucky, and 
Maryland, while the Northwest offered still further differences. 
When people went, as they frequently did go, from one section to 
settle in another of almost opposite customs, they readily adopted 
the new modes of living and thought. When those from southern 
communities emigrated to the Northwest, they often became the 
strongest upholders of the conditions there. In the same way, 
those who went from the North to the Southwest -liked the social 
order there and wannly supported it. 



THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE 211 

Indians retired across the border, lie followed them 
and seized the Spanish towns of St. Marks and 
Pensacola. A possible conflict with Spain was averted 
by the purchase of Florida by the United States 
(1821). The price agreed upon was $5,000,000. 

Renewal of Political Strife.— In 1819, a question 
arose with regard to the formation of further new 
States out of the Louisiana Territory. 

, , . . , , ^ . . ■ J n TT • Sectional 

Missouri sought admission into the Union struggle tor 
as a slave State. If admitted with slavery, troi of new " 
the State would probably ally itself in 
politics with the South ; if it were admitted without 
slavery, it would be likely to identify itself with the 
political thought and policies of the North. 

A compromise was finally reached by which the 
''balance of power" was maintained. Missouri was 
admitted as a " slave State ' ' and Maine, at 

1. 4- ^1 4-- a 4^ Ui 4- ^y The Missouri 

about the same time, as a ' iree State, compromise, 
Another part of the compromise was the 
provision made for the rest of the Louisiana District. 
Slave labor was prohibited north of the parallel 
36° 30', while nothing was said of the territory south 
of that line. 

This compromise proved to be a great triumph 
for the North. Politically, the South became gradu- 
ally weaker, and that section began to fear the 
rapidly growing power of the Northeast as the 
Northeast had formerly feared the power of the 
South. The West, which, against the opposition of 
the Northeast, had heretofore aided the South in 
securing new territory for the Union, now became 
divided; and its larger and more populous portion 



212 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

joined the Northeast in a political struggle against 
the South. 

It was clearly seen that slavery, which might be 
profitable in the lower South, would "become a blight 
upon the development of the Northwest.^ The vast 
number of immigrants then pouring into the United 
States disliked slavery, and that element settled 
almost wholly in the North. In 1787, the slave-holder 
had voluntarily excluded himself from the Northwest 
Territory ; and, by the Missouri Compromise, he ivas 
excluded from all States which might be formed 
north of the southern boundary of Missouri, while 
his " property' ' was not safeguarded south of that 
Slavery as ^in^. Patriotic and far-sighted men hoped 
and^pomS ^^^^ slavery would be excluded from the 
issue ^^Q^y territory. Unhappily, however, other 

men saw that slavery could be made a political issue 
to serve selfish ends or sectional purposes. When 
Thomas Jefferson saw, in his declining years, the 
first evidences of this latter tendency, he declared 
that the ill-will thus aroused between the sections 
alarmed him as the sound of fire-bells at night. "I 
tremble," he wrote, ^'for the safety of the Union." 
In view of the great number of negroes in the South, 
Jefferson had said that the question of the abolition 
of slavery was like the problem of a man who was 
holding a wolf by the ears : it was difficult to hold on 
and dangerous to let go. He was among the first to 

' Some of those who emigrated from the South to the North- 
west wished to take slaves with them ; othei*s were among* the most 
determined opponents of the extension of slave teiTitorj\ 



EMANCIPATION SENTIMENT IN "UPPER SOUTH" 213 

see the mistake of slavery ; yet, he believed that, since 
the importation of slaves from Africa had been 
stopped, the diffusion of slavery over new territory 
in America would lead the more readily to gradual 
emancipation. 

Emancipation sentiment was especially strong in 
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and 
Kentucky. In 1832, the Virginia Legisla- Emancipation 
ture came within a few votes of passing an the*'^^p1)w^ 
emancipation measure for that State; ^°"*^" 
while in North Carolina, during the first third of the 




R. A. Lancaster's Historic Virginia Homes and Churches 

Mount Vernon, the home of George Washington, on the Potomac in Vifginia. 
A rear view, showing the negro slave quarters. In 1859 the house and 200 acres 
around it were bought from the family of Bushrod Washington by the Mount Vernon 
Ladies' Association. 

nineteenth century, there were more emancipation 
societies than in any other State in the Union. The 
extreme violence, however, of some of the abolition- 
ists in the North, the efforts to arouse slave insur- 
rections in the South, and politics in both sections 



214 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

hampered the emancipation movement in all the 
southern States (see p. 256). 

In 1820, James Monroe was elected President for 
a second term, and the Government found itself fac- 
ing an extremely serious problem, bearing not only 
upon its OAvn future welfare, but upon its relations 
with the most powerful nations of the Old World. 



L-- 




THE "savannah' 



The first steamboat to cross the Atlantic (1819). This vessel crossed the ocean 
from Savannah to Liverpool in 27 days, propelled by steam and sail. 

Spanish colonies in South America had rebelled 
against the mother country and . had set up inde- 
pendent governments. It appeared that some of 
the nations of Europe were getting ready to support 
The Monroe Spain iu au effort to recover her lost pos- 
?roclSed sessions ; furthermore, Russia had already 
^^^^ secured Alaska and was preparing to claim 

the Oregon country. In a message to Congress in 
1823, President Monroe declared that any attempt by 
European nations to conquer or interfere with an 



ELECTION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 215 

independent American government would not be re- 
garded with favor by the United States ; and that the 
Western Hemisphere was closed to further coloniza- 
tion by European powers." 

In 1824, there were four candidates for President, 
all of them asserting that they represented the 
Democratic-Republican party. These candidates 
were John Quincy Adams, a son of John Adams ; 
General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee ; William H. 
Crawford, of Georgia; and Henry Clay, of Kentucky. 
Jackson received 99 electoral votes; Adams, 84; 
Crawford, 41 ; and Clay, 37. No candidate 
received a majority of the votes cast; so, John ouincy 
according to the provisions of the Consti- 
tution, the election was thrown into the House of 
Representatives (Article XII, Amendments to the 
Constitution). In Congress, the followers of Clay 
supported Adams and the latter was elected Presi- 
dent. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was 
elected Vice-President. 

Since Jackson had received the largest popular 
vote, the action of the House of Representatives in 

' Monroe further stated that it was equally contrary to 
United States policies and ideals to interfere with affairs per- 
taining to the nations of Europe. 

To the teacher: It may be deemed advisable to refer to the 
various applications of the Monroe Doctrine, from the appear- 
ance of a French fleet in western waters in 1824 to the Venezuela 
dispute under Cleveland; and to the later interpretations by 
Presidents Roosevelt and Wilson. For the earlier points in con- 
troversy, an excellent reference work is " The United States," by 
\Yiley and Rines. These volumes present, in their entirety, an 
unusual number of public documents. 



216 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



Political 
strife 
between 
Jackson and 
Adams 



electing Adams aroused. the bitterest feelings among 
the supporters of Jackson. Subsequently, when 
Adams made Clay Secretary of State, a "bargain 
and corruption'^ cry was raised. This accusation was 
unjust to both men ; but the friends of Jack- 
son made the most of it. Jackson himself, 
although a man of strong will and high 
principles, was not a good judge of char- 
acter and motives, and men soon found that they 
could use him to forward their own selfish purposes. 
On the other hand, Adams was not 
a popular hero like Jackson, or a 
great political leader like Clay. 
He was inclined to favor many of 
the old Federalist ideas; and he 
was distinctly out of touch with 
the democracy of the West, the 
principles of which were invading 
the East and bringing with them 
' ' manhood suffrage, ' ' regardless 
of social position or property- 
holdings (see p. 271). 
1809, Great Britain, 1815; Tlic most Important cvcut of 

Secretary of State under r\ ' in i n • • j 

Monroe; President, 1825- J ohu Uumcv Adauis ' admmistra- 

29; elected to Congress, , 

i83i-'48. Died 1848. tlou was tlic passagc of a tariff 
bill which became known as the * * Tariff of Abomina- 
tions. '^ This measure did as much to arouse an- 
tagonism in the South as the embargo act 
had done to stir up opposition in New Eng- 
land. As Webster had foreseen (see p. 206), 
the protective tariff duties increased as the years 
went by : but that statesman was now in favor of the 




JOHN QTTINCT ADAMS 
Born Braintree, Massa- 
chusetts, July 11, 1767. 
Minister to Holland, 1794 ; 
United States Senator, 
1802; Minister to Russia, 



The "Tariff 
of Abomina 
tions," 1828 



ELECTION OF ANDREW JACKSON 217 

tariff, because the majority of his constituents, or 
supporters, had become interested in manufacturing. 
The South and the West opposed increases in the 
tariff duties ; but some of the Jackson Democrats, as 
they began to be called, voted for the most marked 
increases in the tariff duties, not because they be- 
lieved these were right, but because they thought 
they would help to make the bill even more obnoxious 
and thereby increase the popular feeling against 
Adams and Clay. 

The "Jacksonian Era." — ^As expected by the sup- 
porters of Jackson, great opposition was aroused 
against the tariff' in the West and the South, and this 
was especially pronounced in the latter section. In- 
dignation meetings were held; the law was pro- 
nounced unconstitutional, while nullifica- 

Election of 

tion and secession Avere threatened as^ainst Andrew 

. . ^ Jackson, 1828 

a form of taxation that *' increased the cost 
of everything the Southern States bought and tended 
to decrease the price of what they had to sell.'' In 
1828, the contest lay between Jackson and Calhoun, 
on the one hand, and Adams and Rush (of Pennsyl- 
vania) , on the other. Jackson and Calhoun won by a 
decisive vote; and the tariff question was not then 
brought sharply to an issue, for it was believed by its 
opponents that Congress would act in accordance 
with the views of the President and Vice-President 
and bring about a sharp reduction in the tariff rates. 
In accordance with his policy of rewarding his 
supporters and punishing his opponents, Jackson 



218 



JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 



made wholesale removals from govermnent positions, 
whether the men removed had done' good work or 
not. In their place, he appointed his friends, or those 
recommended by his friends, without in- 
System" vcstigatlon as to their fitness to fill the posi- 
deveioped j-^^^^g givcn them. Selfish and corrupt men 
Jackson flattered Jackson in order to secure ad- 
vantage for themselves and profit at the expense of 
the Government. "To the victor belong the spoils" 
was the cry of Jackson's followers ; 
and the ' ' Spoils System, ' ' encour- 
aged, if not established, by Jack- 
son, played a leading role in the 
corruption of the administration 
of government until, many years 
later, it was largely overthrown by 
the movement for ''Civil Service 
Reform." 

While Jackson lessened the effi- 
ciency of the Government through 
the appointment of unfit officials, 
his strong personality extended 
the i^owers of tire Executive and 
of the Federal Government ; but, even in the matter 
of upholding the authority of the Federal Govern- 
ment, his personal feelings seemed unduly 
to influence his actions. Indeed, it is diffi- 
cult, in a few words, to make clear the mixed 
good and evil which came of Jackson's election and 
administration. His own motives were good and he 
thought that the motives of his principal advisers 




ANDREW JACKSON 

Born Waxhaw, on North 
Carolina-South Carolina 
border, March 15, 1761 ; 
first representative in Con- 
gressfroni Tennessee, 1796; 
leader in Indian campaigns ; 
victor at New Orleans, 
1815; President, 1829-'37. 
Died 1845. 



Jackson on 

nullification 

issues 



NULLIFICATION PRACTISED IN GEORGIA 219 

were equally good. On the other hand, he believed 
that those who opposed him were enemies of his 
country .s Three instances of State interference, or 
nullification, which happened in his administration, 
appear to illustrate the point in question. 

In the first of these cases; of nullification of Federal 
authority, the State of Georgia practically took pos- 
session of the lands of the Chero- 
kee Indians. The Cherokees ap- 
pealed to the Supreme Court of the 
United States for pro- ^^ ,,.^ ^. 

. -L Nullification 

tection, and Chief Jus- practisedin 

tice Marshall and the 

Court upheld the claims of the 

Indians. Georgia, however, defied 

the decision; and, as Jackson was 

JOHN MARSHALL opposcd to tlic Clicrokce conteii- 

virg?nTa';^Slmbe7''24: tlous, that State was triumphant, 

join'^patdo^lforc-es in^ v£ bccause, wltliout tlie aid of the 

ginia in the Revolution; x^ • n j j i o* r-< i 

served in Continental Ir*resideiit, tlic Suprcmc Court was 

Army; envoy to France 

under Adams; Secretary of poWCrlcSS tO CUforCC itS I'uUngS. 

State, 1800; Chief Justice ^ ^ 

coirt'1r1>m isofToTis ^^ ^hc sccoud iustaucc of state 
death in 1835. interference, Maine and Massa- 

chusetts declared that, if the Senate ratified a pro- 
vision of the treaty of Ghent (1814), and gave to 
Canada a strip of land claimed by Maine, neither 

^ In his diplomatic work and in civil life, John Qnincy Adams 
had labored as hard for the welfare of his country as had Jackson 
on the field of battle; nevertheless, Jackson permitted Adams to 
be abused in a fashion so offensive to the latter that Adams could 
not persuade himself to stay in Washington to give the customary 
greeting to his successor in office. 




220 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 

State would regard the treaty as binding. The Senate 
finally gave way and yielded the issue. In this case, 
Nullification Jacksou was somewhat disposed to inter- 
announced in fere against the States in order to keep the 
Maisachu^ temis of the Federal treaty; for, as the 
setts stronghold of his political opponents, he did 

not like New England. On the other hand, he had 
always fought against Great Britain, and did not 
show much disappointment when the Senate failed to 
ratify the final award under the terms of the treaty.*^ 

The third instance of nullification under Jackson 
was the interference by the State of South Carolina 
in the collection of customs at Charleston 
principles uudcr the provisiou of the tariff law of 1832, 
in°soum^ which, contrary to expectations, had made 
Carolina ycry fcw cliauges in the alleged excessive 
duties under the ^'Tariff of Abominations" (p. 216). 

Since the passage of the tariff bill of 1828, Jackson 
had had a quarrel with Vice-President Calhoun. The 
Jackson re- President had found out that Calhoun, as a 
prl*i*ment member of Adams' Cabinet, had disap- 
1832 proved of his action in the invasion of 

Florida during the war against the Seminoles. Con- 
sequently, in the campaign of 1832, Martin Van Buren 
had been nominated for Vice-President by the Demo- 
crats in place of Calhoun. Jackson, more than ever a 



' Whether Jackson would have attempted to compel the 
States to yield is an interesting question. The Governments of 
Great Britain and the United States had agreed to submit the 
boundary question in dispute to an arbitrator. The arbitrator 
chosen was the King of the Netherlands, who awarded the territory 
under discussion to Canada. 




TARIFF AND NULLIFICATION COMPROMISE 221 

popular idol, had been elected by a large majority 
over Henry Clay, National-Eepnblican. 

After the election. South Carolina had declared 
that the tariff was unconstitutional and not binding 
on that State. Accordingly, steps were taken to 
carry nullification into effect by 
preventing the Federal revenue 
M ^\. ^ffi^^^^ ^^^^ collecting import 
M W\ duties at the port of Charleston. 
W^'^^^^ This threat aroused Jackson, and 
^ the Administration leaders pre- 

pared a ''Force 'Bill" to put the 
Federal army and navy at the ser- 
vice of the President to uphold the 
tariff law. For her part, South 
sS.'ii^c'^oult^^^^^^ Carolina had already called out 
SeseSvi^^hTle^! hcr militia and was prepared for 
tions^:iic^.t^lFn7ni armcd resistance. 
V"SSrnt^\'8l5-'3l: No one questions the courage 
[TitlToTi>"oT:fus and determination of Jackson, on 
fi^rttrro;':?tlw%bSeT; the ouc hand, or of the people of 

siiDDorted annexation of , i j i l, 4. 

Texas. Died 1850. South Caroliua, on the other ; but 

Jackson, now bitterly hostile to Calhoun, determined 
to enforce the law, although he disapproved of its 
provisions. Calhoun and the South Caro- ^^^.^ ^^^ 
linians were equally determined to resist numficauon 
what they denounced as ''unjust, uncon- 
stitutional, and inequitable" taxation. There would 
probably have been war, but for the mediation of 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, sometimes called "The 
Great Pacificator." ^^ He introduced a bill in Con- 



JOHN C. CALHOUN 



222 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 

gress wliicli ijrovicled for the g-radual reduction of 
the tariif rates. By this, Clay pleased the South and 
a large part of the West as well. At the same time, as 
a part of the compromise, Federal supremacy in the 
matter of the collections of tariff duties ivas formally 
asserted. The nullification ordinance was forthwith 
repealed by South Carolina, and the issue between 
the Federal Government and that State was peace- 
ably settled. The principle of nullification itself was 
not decided, and that doctrine next appeared in the 
Northern States, where, for many years, it w^as suc- 
cessfully practised in protest against the alleged 
injustice of the Federal fugitive slave laws.^^ 

To Jackson, the United States Bank, established 
by the Federalists in 1791 and re-established by the 
Democratic-Republicans in 1816 (p. 201), was an 
object of special dislike. It has even been said that 
Jackson could not hear the name of the Bank men- 
tioned without flying into a passion. In 1832, there- 
fore, he refused to sign a bill to renew its charter, 

^" He had proposed also the terms of i\ie> famous Missouri 
Compromise (see p. 211). 

" The doctrine of State sovereignty (see p. 192) was so 
strong at this time that there is little doubt that Jackson's policy 
of force would have aroused resistance in other States besides 
South Carolina. If a war over the alleged right of secession 
had occurred in 1832, it is not unlikely that the Union would 
have been dissolved. Daniel Webster, who spoke most strongly 
against the principle of nullification, as threatened by South 
Carolina, spoke twenty years later against nullification as prac- 
tised by Massachusetts. Because of this attitude on Webster's 
part, the poet Whittier composed the poem " Ichabod," which 
lamented the " dead " fame and " lost honor " of that great orator 
and statesman. Happily, however, the world has not accepted 
Whittier's estimate of Webster. 



VAN BUREN ELECTED PRESIDENT 223 

which was due to expire four years later. Henry 
Clay had insisted on taking up the renewal jackson 
of the charter as an issue in the elections of thr^ow^ th?" 
that year. Jackson accepted the challenge unit^d^ *^^ 
and took advantage of the distrust of the ^*^*^^' ^^^^ 
Bank on the part of the masses of the people. As 

©soon as the election returns 
allowed that he was supported by 
public opinion, he gave orders to 
the collectors of United States 



.^^^M revenue to put no more money into 
the Federal Bank. He also or- 
dered that the Government money 
already on deposit should be with- 
drawn; so that, in 1836, the Bank 
DANIEL WEBSTEK of tlie United States ceased to 

Hampshire^/^jruuary^ls^ Cxist wltll tllC CXpiration of ItS 

1812'; served^L House as chartcr. Tlic Fcdcral dcposlts 

Representative from New , . . o* i 

Hampshire; later repre- WerC thCU madC Wltll VariOUS StatC 

sented Massachusetts in 

United States Senate; at baiiks, whlch wcrc callcd bv Jack- 

nrst opposed protective ^ *' 

\tr!^i^nL':^Vv£ernnt ^on's oppoueiits his ' ' pct bauks.'^ 

an?tt"i"nnTxaUr"of OuC Of JackSOU'S political ad- 

Texas. Died 1852. ^,.g^^g ^^^^g Martin Van Buren, of 

New York. Jackson made it known tliat he wished 
Van Buren to succeed him as the leader of van Buren 
the Democratic party. In 1836, Van Buren presMent, 
was elected over his chief opponent, ^^^^ 
William H. Harrison, ^^National-Republican,'' who 
later became the leader of the Whig party.^^ 

" In the campaign of 1832, the candidates for President were 
for the first time nominated by conventions. For the first 
time, also, the principles of the parties were set forth in what we 
call " platfomi " beliefs and promises. 



224 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

Thomas Jeiferson and John Adams died during the Presi- 
dency of John Quincy Adams. Both died on the same day, July 4, 
1826, the fiftieth anniversaiy of the adojation of the 
Death of Declaration of Independence. Each had reached an 
Jefferson advanced age (see biographical sketches), and each 
and John died in the belief that the other survived him. It 
Ju1y°4^'l826 ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ John Adams' last words were : " Thomas 
Jefferson still lives." At one period of the careei^ 
of these two statesmen, each distrusted and disliked the other; but, 
happily, as they grew older, they became good friends, and kept in 
touch with each other by correspondence. John Adams, the Feder- 
alist, lived to see his son President of the United States and a 
member of the party founded by Jeffei-son, his f onner political foe. 

Two years before the death of Jefferson and Adams, Lafay- 
ette returned to America and was received with a country-wide 
welcome. He had been invited by President Monroe at 
Visit of the special request of Congress. Since Lafayette had 

182?^^**^' ^^^^ much of his private fortune during the course of 
the French Revolution, CongTess voted him two 
hundred thousand dollars and a township of land in the west. 

Lessons may be derived from the life of Jefferson fully as 
inspiring as those drawn from the life of Washington, some of 
which are pointed out on p. 174. Jefferson was the pen of the 
Revolution, as Washington was its sword. Other men might have 
been found to draw up the Declaration of Independence; but 
Jefferson possessed and improved a greater number of talents 
than any other American of his day. He had, like Washington, 
acquired a country-school education; but, in the Reverend James 
Maury, the grandfather of Matthew Fontaine Mauiy (see 
p. 270), he had an unusually able instructor. He was studious, 
as well as fond of outdoor life; and, like Washington, he w^as 
over six feet tall. But Thomas Jefferson turned his 
Lessons from mind to many things; and, Avhat is more remarkable, 
Jefferson^ he excelled at almost everything he undertook. He 
became great in knowledge of human nature and in 
his ability to aid the progress of the people towards better things 



CLAY, CALHOUN, WEBSTER, HAYNE 225 

in government, in statecraft, in education, in social customs, 
in science, in art, in architecture, and in many other things." 

It has been said that, ^^ politics were never so mild " as 
during the period immediately following the collapse of the 
Federalist party. Monroe was elected for his second temi in 
1820 with only one vote cast against him. This one 
elector cast his ballot against him, not because he was Political 

1 X Ti/r 1 J^^ ITT -1 quiet under 

opposed to Monroe, but because he did not wish anyone Monroe, and 

but Washington to receive a unanimous vote for the t^e unrest 
Presidency, On the other hand, it may be said that jackson 
there never was, in the history of this country, a 
more bitter political fight than that waged between John Quincy 
Adams and Andrew Jackson, from 1824 to 1828. Later, there 
was so much sectional and party hatred aroused by the tariff law 
and the slavery question that there were frequently scenes of 
violence on the floors of Congress. 

In speaking of the gi-eat senatorial speeches of W^ebster, 
Clay, Calhoun, Hayne, and others, it was long the custom for 
those who had heard them to use the expression : " There were 
giants in those days." Especially noted were the debates be- 
tween Webster and Hayne, and between Webster and Calhoun, 

in which W^ebster raised his powerful voice in favor ^, 

Clay, 
of an " indissoluble Union," rather than a " Federated Caihoun, 

Republic." Hayne and Calhoun based their arguments Webster, 

on the idea that the Union was intended to be a Federal ^^^® 

Republic in which the States could interpose their authority to 

protect themselves against injustice or injury at the hands of the 

Central Federal Government. These were the views of Jefferson 

as expressed in the " Kentucky Resolutions " ; of Madison, in the 

" Virginia Resolutions " ; and the views laid down, at one time or 

another, by all of the older States in the Union. 

On page 88 mention is made of the Mohawk Valley as 

being in early colonial times, the easiest route to the West. 

" To the teacher: This subject has been treated at some 
length, not with the idea of presenting even approximately a full 
review of the work of Thomas Jefferson, but with the purpose of 
giving the pupils food for thought and ideas, investigation and 
discussion. 
15 



226 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PERIOD 

Nevertheless, at the hegmniiig of the nineteenth centniy, Phila- 
delphia and Baltimore excelled New York in attracting the 
overland trade of the West. In 1803, however, Gonverneur 
Moriis suggested the construction of a canal from Albany west- 
ward, in order to connect New York City with Lake 
o°^hl'Erir ^^'^® ^y ^^ all-water route. DeWitt Clinton seized 
Canal or hold of the idea, and, against much opposition in New 

"B?*°Dftch" ^^'^'^^ ^^^y ^^^^ State, was able to begin building his 
'^ ' ^ '' Big Ditch " in 1817. In 1825, the canal, 352 miles in 
length, was completed. Passage time for freight was cut down 
one-half, or from 20 days to 10, while passengers were carried 
from one end to the other in what was considered the remarkably 
short time of three and a half days. Freight rates, also, were 
lowered from $100 to $10 and $3 a ton. 

Tho completion of the Erie Canal marked the beginning of 
the supremacy of New York City over the cities of America, and 
eventually of the world itself. Great cities sprang up along- this 
man-made water-way and its natural extension through the Great 
Lakes. Some of these cities, each larger than the New York City 
of that day, are: Utica, Syracuse, Rochester, Buffalo, and Toledo, 
Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit. 

Lighting- by gas and heating by means of anthracite coal 

came into use in the early lydvt of the nineteenth centuiy, 

although neither hard coal nor gas was immediately thought 

practicable for the purpose proposed. In 180C, Daniel Melville, 

, , , ,, of Newport, Rhode Island, lighted h.is house and the 

Introduction • o o - • ^ t ■ ^ 

of artificial street m front oi it with gas. Little was thought or 

K.as for tlie idea until, in 1816, a company was chartered to 

manufacture gas in Baltimore. The new method of 

lighting was thought veiy wonderful, and people came miles to see 

it in actual use. As yet, no one dreamed of the natural gas which 

was, in later times, to be released from under the soil and used in 

so many communities for both light and heat. 



CHAPTER XI 



From 1837 to 1861 — Period of Political Strife on 
Sectional Lines 

Presidency of Martin Van Buren. — A financial panic 
followed the inauguration of President Van Buren. 
After the overthrow of the United States Bank, a 
great number of State banks w^ere organized; but 
these lacked the safeguards that 
are now^ placed around banking 
institutions by law. Many of them 
were badly managed and had little 
money in reserve. The surplus 
funds lent to these banks 
by the Federal Govern- 




ment w^ere, in turn 



Financial 
panic under 
Van Buren, 
1837 



MARTIN VAN BUREN 

Born Kinderhook, New 
York, December 5. 1782. 
Elected to United States 
Senate, 1812; Secretary of 
State under Jackson, 1829 ; 
Vice-President, 1833-'37; 
President, 1837-41. Free 
Soil candidate for Presi- 
dent, 1848. Died 1862. 



lent out to speculators. When the 
Government called for its money, 
the banks were unable to pay, and 
many of them failed. United 
States sub-treasuries were there- 
after established as places for de- 
posit of Government funds; and this system, with 
some changes, was maintained until Federal Reserve 
Banks were established, about seventy-five years 
later, under the currency reform legislation passed 
by Congress during the administration of President 
Wilson.^ 

^ The system of National Banks was created during the War of 
Secession. 

227 



228 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



In spite of this period of business depression 
under Van Buren, the frontier line was pushed west- 
ward, and settlement was extended in the South and 
Southwest. The steamboat developed travel and 




An old printing press and type case, said to have been used by Benjamin Franklin 



trade on the Great Lakes, and the population of 
Western Michigan Territory doubled in the ten years 

andTevTlop. ^^'^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^' ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ grOWth 

"^e^* took place after the opening of the Erie 

Canal (p. 226) ; and in 1837 Michigan was admitted 
into the Union as the twenty-sixth State. 



WESTERN EXPANSION AND DEVELOPMENT 229 

A series of treaties with the Indian tribes living 
in Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Mississippi 
arranged for their removal beyond the Mississippi 
River, into what became known as the Indian Terri- 
tory. The land thus made vacant was taken up by 
white settlers, and most of it was devoted to the culti- 
vation of cotton. Across the Mississippi, Arkansas, 
also with soil and climate adapted to the raising of 
cotton, had been admitted into the Union in 1836.^ 

Van Buren had been the choice of Jackson as the 
latter 's successor; but the great democracy of the 
West had felt very much about Van Buren as it had 
felt about John Quincy Adams. The people believed 
he was out of sympathy with them. Moreover, he 
was held responsible for the ^^hard times" of 1837; 
although, on the contrary, Van Buren deserves 
especial credit for resisting a popular demand for 
temporary relief measures which might have in- 
jured business permanently. When, therefore, the 
Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, a soldier 
and Southerner who had ''grownup with the West," 
the masses of the people rallied around him as they 

^ Conflicts with the Indians marked the advance of settlement 
in both the South and the Northwest. Osceola, or Black Drink, led 
the Seminoles of Florida in revolt in the last of the Indian wars 
of the East. In the Northwest, Black Hawk and his warriors had 
ravaged (1831-'32) the country from. Chicago westward. It is in- 
teresting to note that in this war Captain Jefferson Davis, of the 
regular army, had under him a volunteer private named Abraham 
Lincoln. Both had been born in Kentucky; one was to be the 
President of the United States at the time the other was elected 
President of the Southern Confederacy. 



230 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

had done around Jackson. John Tyler, of Virginia, 
was nominated with him. The people recalled Harri- 
son 's first victory over the Indians just before the 
Unpopularity War of 1812; hcucc the campaign cry of 
Burln? ' ' Tippecanoe and Tyler too ! ' ^ (see p. 191) 
Harris^n°Ind ^^^ raised by the Whigs. When the Demo- 
Tyler, 1840 crats made fun of Harrison as a man con- 
tent to live in a log cabin with a barrel of hard cider, 
the Whigs promptly made hundreds of log-cabin 
banners and raised a shout for 
''the log cabin, the cider barrel, 
and reform. ' ' Harrison and Tyler 
carried nineteen out of twenty-six 
States, Virginia, the home of both 
the successful candidates, giving 
more than half the votes against 
them. 

Annexation of Texas and War 
with Mexico. — flarrison died one william henry harrison 
month after his inauguration, and vi?g°n^,^i<Srary9fi?7°^ 

mi j^ 1 i.1 j-1 i? served in frontier and 
Tvler took the Oatll or Indian campaigns; first 
Vice-Presi- ' n n i. tt* governor of Indiana Terri- 
dent Tyler OmCC aS the lirst Vice- tory; commander in North- 
becomes T^ . n ; n 1 X west during War of 1812; 
President, President called upon to congressman trom Ohio; 
.oAt\ elected President 1S40. 

^^^^ take the place of the ^ied i84i. 

President.^^ There was a good deal of political dis- 
cord during President Tyler's administration, chiefly 




' It may be of interest to the Amenean boys who are study- 
ing this period to know that the spot is still pointed out at Williams- 
burg", Virginia, where, it is said, Vice-President Tyler was taking 
a " noon recess " from his office and Avas engaged in phiying a 
game of marbles when the news came that Harrison's death had 
made him President. In earlier times, throughout the South and 



QUESTION OF ANNEXATION OF TEXAS 231 

owing to the fact that Tyler was in favor of the 
annexation of Texas. On the other hand, influential 
leaders, such as Webster, of Massachusetts, Clay, of 
Kentucky, and Van Buren, of New York, were vehe- 
mently opposed to the acquisition of that territory. 
The story of Texas, its annexation to the United 
States, and the Mexican War may be presented more 
conveniently in the following ad- 
ministration ; for this question of 
expansion was the principal issue 
of the campaign of 1844. The 
Democrats nominated James K. 
Polk, of Tennessee, and The question 
George M. Dallas, of '171^' 
Pennsylvania, on a plat- lH^l^ ^\\^ 
form which favored an- and Daiias 
JOHN TYLER uexatiou. The Whigs nominated 

Born Charles City Co., Heurv Clav, of Kentuckv, iust 

Virginia, March 29, 1790; "^ "^ ' J > ei 

li?i7''^Qi^*^^-^ Senator, attcr Clay had declared himself 

1827-36; Vice-President, "^ 

denJ^.mlTalv^ocate^dS: ^trougly agaiust the proposed an- 
eTd^d'oJer^pelce^^on^en: ncxatiou of Tcxas. The clection 
tion.1861. Died 1862. ^esulted iu a victory for Polk and 
Dallas. Consequently, in 1844- '45, before his term 
had ended, Tyler made preparations for the passage 

the West particularly, men would frequently gather in the small 
towns and engage in games of marbles, horseshoe pitching, and 
even in wrestling and running matches. In these sections a man in 
public life could rarely " put on any airs." Hence, politicians 
were very careful to keep " close to the people" and to take part 
in their games and outdoor life. Moreover, they enjoyed it; and 
perhaps it was good for both that they did so. These facts are 
further illustrated in the early public life of Abraham Lincoln in 
Illinois. 




232 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

of a bill for the admission of Texas into the Union. 
In the ''Liberty" party of the North there was 
strong opposition to the admission of Texas as a 
step likely to increase the territory given over to 
slavery. The leader of this party was James G. 
Birney, of New York. Birney had been born in Ken- 
tucky, but had moved to Alabama. He had emanci- 
pated his slaves and moved again 
to New York. Wlien, during the 
campaign, Clay had seemed to 
waver in his opposition to the ad- 
mission of Texas, the ''Free Soil" 
men of New York cast their votes 
for Birney for President rather 
than for Clay, thus helping to 
elect Polk and to pave the way for 
Texas ^^^ annexation of the henry clay 

-j_,,-**_j -n» IT n m Born Hanover County, 

admitted RePUbllC of TcXaS. Virginia. April 12, 1777. 

into tne i ^ ^ , . Elected to Congress from 

Union, 1845 TcXaS had been, m Kentucky, 1811; urged 

war with Great Britain, 

turn, a part of the Spamsli pos- l^Ji^oJ^^^f^ ^l^^. 
sessions and of the Republic of |,-- ^-„Ti„uousi??o''dTy 
Mexico. Under Spanish and °!„S,'Lled"}or''presidenr. 

,^. 1 -\ r Ai.* -C t»iit was defeated; sup- 

Mexican rule, Moses Austin, or ported a protective tariff 

CNx 1 ^^^ ^ system of internal 

Connecticut, and his son, Stephen improvements by the Fed- 

■ eral government. Died 

F. Austin, had obtained grants of 1^52. 
land in 1820 and 1821. So successful were these 
pioneers in securing settlers from the United States 
that the Mexican Government became alarmed and 
forbade any further immigration from the States. 
Trouble arose between the settlers and Mexico, and 
in 1833 Texas rose in revolt. Two years later the 




TEXAS ADMITTED INTO THE UNION 



233 



Texans defeated the Mexicans in the battles of Gron- 
zales and Goliad. In 1836, however, Santa Anna, 
the President of Mexico, invaded Texas with a large 
army. At the Alamo, an old Spanish mission nsed 
as a fort, David Crockett and 300 Texans were be- 
sieged. After a bloody conflict, the survivors sur- 
rendered; but all were massacred by the Mexicans. 
This cruelty on the part of Santa Anna enraged the 
Texans. With the cry: ^^ Remember the Alamo!'' 




BEaiDENCE OP PRESIDENT HOUSTON, OF TEXAS, 

(while the Capitol was being built) 



1836 



The building up of the prosperous cities of the West has ever been one of the 
marvels of American energy. A few years sufficed to supplant a few log cabins with 
well-planned towns of substantial houses and capacious public buildings. 



on their lips, they rallied under General Samuel 
Houston and decisively defeated the Mexicans at the 
battle of San Jacinto (1836). Santa Anna himself 
was captured, and Texas won her independence. 
On securing her independence, Texas sought an- 



234 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

nexation to the United States ; but, as before stated, 
no agreement could be reached until after the elec- 
tion of Polk and Dallas. In Congress, the opposi- 
tion to annexation was defeated; and Texas, which 
had been an independent Eepublic for nine years, 
was, in December, 1845, admitted into the Union as 
the twenty-eighth State. 

Although, since her defeat at San Jacinto, in 1836, 
Mexico had not attempted to regain Texas, she now 
declared that she regarded the annexation of that 
territory by the United States as 
an unfriendly act. The Mexican 
Government forthwith suspended 
diplomatic intercourse with the 
United States. A dispute had 
Dispute as to ^riseu as to the bound- 
boundary ^yj \[j^q l3etween Texas 

and Mexico. Santa Anna had 
agreed that Texas should extend 
to the Rio Grande ; but Mexico now 
attempted to set aside that agree- Bom Mecklenburg co., 

-.-,. -,,-iiji 1 1 North Carolina, Novem- 

ment and clamied that the bound- ber 2 1795; elected to con- 

gress froml ennessee, Ib^o- 

ary line was formed by the Nueces -f teiTFrlideXil^'s- 
River (see map, p. 237). '^^^ ^-^ ^'^'; 

The territory in dispute was then unoccupied, so 
the United States Government sent General Zachary 
First blood- Taylor and a small force across the Nueces, 
shed; war After thesc troops had remained there sev- 

declared, ^ ^ i i i 

1846 eral months, a Mexican force ambushed a 

small body of American regulars and killed or cap- 
tured the entire detachment. This took place on 




BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA 235 

April 25, 1846 ; and Congress promptly declared that 
war had been begun by act of Mexico. 

Taylor's army of 2000 men was greatly outnmn- 
])ered by the Mexicans; but, after repelling one 
attack at Palo Alto, near the present site of Taylor's 
Brownsville, Texas, he defeated the Mex- norTherf '"^ 
icans on the following day (May 9) and ^^^^<^° 
drove them beyond the Rio Grande. Taylor crossed 
the Rio Grande, and, after three days of fighting at 
Monterey, again defeated the Mexicans. 





BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA 



The Mexicans, led by Santa Anna, were nearly successful in overwhelming the 
small force umlcr Ciencral Zachary Taylor. The latter rode to the front and rallied 
his men, and victory was won, after two days' fighting, by the courage and skill of 
George II. Thomas, Jefferson Davis, and the fire of the batteries of T. W. Sherman 
ancl Braxton Bragg. 

Taylor's progress was then stopped in order to 
give greater weight to the campaign of General Win- 
field Scott, which was directed against Mexico City 
by way of Vera Cruz. Santa Anna, believ- Battle of 
ing that an opportunity had presented itself fII'^12'!2T' 
for driving Taylor out of Mexico, at- ^^^"^ 
tacked Taylor's force of 5000 men with an army 



236 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFil 

four times as large. In a fierce two days' battle at 
Buena Vista, February 22-23, 1847, Taylor succeeded 
in defeating the Mexicans and driving them otf the 
field.* 

After the battle of Buena Vista, General Scott, 
with 12,000 men, captured Vera Cruz and began a 
Scott's march upon Mexico City. Although the 

campaign United Statcs forces were victorious in 
every important engagement in the six months ' cam- 
paign that followed, the Mexicans fought stubbornly 
all the way. On many occasions it seemed certain that 
the invaders must be repelled or defeated, but in 
every case the self-sacrifice, courage, and ability of 
some subordinate officer or officers saved the day. It 
may not be too much to say that no army invaded any 
country with greater credit, and nearly all of these 
subordinate officers afterwards became distinguished 
in the Union or Confederate service in the sectional 
war of 1861- '65.-^' 

On the 14th of September," Mexico City surren- 
Treaty of dcrcd ; and, early in 1847, a treaty was 
Mexico's signed, by the terms of wliich Mexico 
cessions, g^ve up uorth of the Rio Grande the ter- 
ritory that had been tlie chief cause for war. Tlie 

* Taylor became a popular hero and was likened to Andrew 
Jackson. Like Andrew Jackson, he largely owed to his military 
successes his subsequent elevation to the Presidency. 

^ Lieutenant George H. Thomas and Colonel Jefferson Davis, 
with Bragg's and Sherman's batteries, saved the day at Buena 
Vista. With Scott, the young officers who made final success possi- 
ble, and, in many cases, snatched victoiy out of defeat, were U. S. 
Grant, R. E. Lee, T. J. Jackson, George B. McClellan, and others 
whose names appear again in the gTeat War of Secession. 



MEXICAN CESSIONS 



237 




Map showing points of interest in the war 
with Mexico; the territory originally in dis- 
pute, and that acquired from Mexico by 
purchase after the war. 



United States agreed to pay Mexico $15,000,000 for 
her claims to the territory whicli included the whole 
of the present States of California, Nevada, and 



238 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



Utah, together with much of Arizona, New Mexico, 
Colorado, and Wyoming.^ 

Acquisition of New Territory; Renewed Sectional 
Strife. — The war with Mexico and the subsequent 
Opposition to acquisition of new territory had not been 
of\"ew*'°" popular in the North and East for pretty 
territory much the sauic rcasous that the admission 
of Louisiana and western expansion had been un- 
popular there (see 



SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN 






"^ (VK P- 1^4)- To political 




V'tl 







Map showing the route of the American army under General Winfield Scott 

leaders in the North it was now apparent, however, 
that if slavery could be shut out of the ''New West,'* 



® During the progress of the war, General Stephen W. Kearny 
marched 1000 miles from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and ca})- 
tnred Santa Fe. Afterwai'ds he joined the forces in California 
under Lieutenant John C. Fremont and Commodores Sloat and 
Stockton. The United States was, therefore, in actual possession 
of all this territory, and her offer to pay Mexico the amount she 
did pay may be considered a very liberal one. The settlers in 
California had raised an independent standard and had declared 
themselves in favor of annexation to the United States. A few 
years later the lower parts of the present States of New Mexico 
and Arizona were bought from Mexico for $10,000,000. This has 
become known as the Gadsden purchase. 



BATTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 



239 



that vast territory would not be likely to unite 
politically with the South, which had promoted its 
purchase. 

Soon after the close of the Mexican War, Cali- 
fornia soug'ht immediate admission into the Union as 
a free State. In Congress, the Southern leaders were 
opposed to immediate action, because California 
would overthrow the ''balance of power" and would 
give the Senate^ to the X(^rth, which section already 




I^^P 



^*£m 



THE BATTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC (from painting of James Walker in the Capitol at 

Washington) 

The fortress of Chapultepec guarded the approach to Mexico City. In 18-17 it 
was considered almost impregnable; but the United States troops captured the for- 
tress and its entire garrison by assault, September 12-13. George B: McClellan, 
Robert E. Lee, T. J. Jackson, C. V. Sumner, and a score of officers and men after- 
wards distinguished in the War of lS61-'65 were engaged in this assault. 

controlled the House of Representatives. More- 
over, it was contended that the admission of Cali- 
fornia as a ^'free State," part of which was south 
of the 36° 30' parallel, violated the spirit of the 
Missouri Compromise, which had been maintained 
for thirty years. 

Again Henry Clay came forward and proposed 
a compromise, the main provisions of which were: 



240 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



(1) That California sliould be admitted as a ''free 
State"; (2) that the remainder of the Mexican ces- 
sion should be organized into territories without an 
Compromise immediate decision as to the question of 
of 1850 slavery; (3) that the Federal Government 

should be given further power to seize fugitive 
slaves; (4) that slavery should be continued in the 
District of Columbia; (5) and that $10,000,000 be 




THE ANCIENT FORTRESS OF CHAPULTEll.' illiMii li reCCnt photOgFapll ) 

given to Texas in payment for some of her territorial 
claims conflicting with those of the United States. 

This compromise settled the debate in Congress, 

but it did not atford satisfaction to either side. 

Calhoun and other Southern leaders argued 

the com- that the North had gained everything and 

promise -^^^^^ ^^^^ uothiug by its provisions. He 

argued that ''the balance of power" had been de- 
stroyed ; and that Congress, Avholly under the control 
of the North, might pass any legislation it saw fit to 



OBJECTION TO THE COMPROMISE 241 

the injury and oppression of Southern interests. In 
short, Calhoun was using the same arguments of 
State rights and local self-government brought 
forward on previous occasions by the New England 
Federalists. 

On the Northern side, Senator William H. Seward 
declared, chiefly in reference to the fugitive slave 
provision, that there was a '^ higher law'' than the 
Constitution and the will of Congress — the moral 
duty to protect human rights against all law. He 




The United States Senate in the days of Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Hayne, and 

Benton 

and several other Northern Senators voted to receive 
petitions in Congress to take steps peaceably to dis- 
solve the Union. 

The Federal Fugitive Slave Law aroused vehe- 
ment protest in the North. Methods were at once 
devised for the encouragement of runaway negroes 
and for their safe conduct through the States to 
Canada. These secret methods became known as ^ ' the 
underground railroad." Legislation was passed by 
eleven Northern States nullifying the fugitive slave 
law; and leading abolitionists publicly burned the 

16 



242 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



Constitution for sanctioning such 



iniquitous pro- 
ceedings." The extreme abolitionists be- 
came so violent in denouncing- the South 



Nullification 
of the 
Fugitive 

Slave Law ^j^at cquallj violent passions were aroused 
in the latter section; so that those in the South who 
argued for emancipation were confounded with the 
extreme abolitionists who denounced the slaveholder 
as necessarily an outlaw or a criminal. Instead of 
sympathy and cooperation between the sections in the 




CHICAGO IN 1832 

In the following year Congress made an appropriation for constructing a harbor at 
Chicago. At this time the growth of the city began, and it has never stopped. 

effort to solve a great problem, voices of hatred and 
mutual misunderstanding confused the issues and 
made peaceful settlement impossible.'^ 

^ It may be noted that the first abolitionist journal was estab- 
lished at Jonesboro, Tennessee, by the Rev. Elihn Embree; and 
that the first Presidential candidate of the " free soil " party was 
from the South. Embree's paper preceded William Lloyd Garri- 
son's noted Liberator by ten years (see, also, p. 270). 

To those who love their whole country without regard to sec- 
tion, the bitter expressions of thLs period make painful reading. 
They were based, however, on ignorance rather than malice; and 
the entire fierce controversy should teach us the value of for- 
bearance and charity. 



TREATY WITH GREAT BRITAIN 243 

Foreign Affairs. — Almost from the earliest times in 
the history of America, governments and individuals 
had considered the problem of cutting a ship canal 
through the Isthmus of Panama or through 
Central America. In 1850, a treaty was Great 
made with Great Britain which guaranteed 
the neutrality of any such canal, should it be made 
then or in the future. 

This treaty with Great Britain followed other 
treaties or agreements with regard 
to the boundary line between 
Canada and the ITnited States. 
After the war of 1812, it was pro- 
posed to build forts on the border 
and to construct battleships on the 
Lakes ; but these proposals were 
rejected, and it was thought that 
C^anada and the United States 
could live in peace and good-will ^"^•«^"" ""^"^^ 

. . Born Orange County 

Without arming against each other. Virginia September 24 

"— ' *— ' I 7X4. • toil orht. in man V nam 




If disputes arose, it was hoped that ^onfmaSr^'or^^^'''^'''''^' 



1784; fought in many cam- 
the Indians; 

they would be settled by treaty or ^rSlSt mt£f 11 
by arbitration. ^" "^^^' ^"^^ '• '''^• 

Western Expansion. — The most serious boundary 
dispute which had arisen was with reference to the 
i i Oregon Country, ' ' which was claimed by both coun- 
tries. President Polk had been elected on the promise 
of securing the Oregon Country as well as Texas 
(p. 231). Polk insisted on the following points in 
favor of the claims of the United States : (1) That, as 
early as 1792, Captain Robert Gray, of Massachu- 
setts, had entered the Columbia River; (2) that Lewis 



244 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



and Clark had explored and claimed that country in 
1805; and (3) that a large number of citizens of the 
United States had emigrated to that country and had 
made settlements there. 

The settlement of the Oregon Country had fol- 
lowed close upon the establishment of Methodist and 
Presbyterian missions in 1834 and 1836. In 1843, 
til on sands of settlers poured into the river valleys, 




A -^. . !i. in w.-win tmniK r liu . i .imi:i ants to the gold-fields of California 
might e\pvi t Mich an Indian attack throughout the greater part of their route. 
The first emigrants to these gold-fields were called "forty-niners," after the year 
in which they set out (1849). 

and they soon set up a form of government for them- 
selves. Two years later, Grreat Britain and the 
The Oregon United States agreed to maintain joint pos- 
Country sesslou ; but President Polk brought this to 
an end in 1846, when the United States secured the 
Oregon Country to the 49th parallel.^ 

* At first the United States claimed the eonnti';v' up to the 
parallel 54° 40', the southern bonndaiy of Alaska. In the United 
States the cry was raised of " Fifty-f onr-f ortv or fight." 



TAYLOR, CALHOUN, CLAY, AND WEBSTER 245 

As the year 1843 marked the first great emigra- 
ton to the Oregon Country, so 1849 saw an even 
greater rush to California. Prior to the war with 
Mexico, California was inhabited by Indians and 
Spaniards. The latter had organized many Jesuit 
and Franciscan mission stations. These missiona- 
ries had already discovered the wonderful adapta- 
bility of the soil and climate of California California 
for the raising of fruit. In 1848 the first l^^J^^.^ ,, 
nugget of gold was discovered, and the sow 
following year tlie whole world learned that any one 
might go to California with a simple outfit or pick, 
shovel, and pan to dig out the precious metal for 
himself. 

Although the sufferings and privations endured 
in marching thousands of miles across an almost un- 
inhabited stretch of continent were without parallel 
in the previous settlement of America, tens of thou- 
sands of emigrants set out for the ' ' Golden West. ' ' 
In a few months San Francisco changed from a vil- 
lage into a city. It has been said that ^'California 
had no time to become a Territory first; she became 
a State as soon as she had formed a government " 
(seep. 238). 

In 1850, the year of the admission of California, 
President Taylor died, and Vice-President Death of 
Millard Fillmore succeeded to the Presi- Vayior,''^ 
dency. Calhoun died in that year; and in cfiy^and 
1852 Clay and Webster also died. These Webster 
three great leaders had each hoped to become Presi- 
dent; but all had failed, although Clay was twice 
nominated by his party. 



246 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



In 1852 the Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce, 
of New Hampshire. The Whig candidate was Gen- 
eral Winfield Scott, of Virginia, who, like President 
Pierce Taylor, was a military hero of the Mexican 

President, ^^^1'' ^^ott, however, called "Old Fuss 
1852 and Feathers" because of his peculiar 

manners, was by no means as popular with the masses 
as ' ' Old Rough and Ready ' ' Taylor had been. Pierce 
'— carried twenty-seven out of thirty- 

one States and was thus elected by 
an overwhelming majority. 
William R. King, of Alabama, was 
elected Vice-President.^ 

Incidents of International Interest 
Under Pierce. — During President 
Pierce's term the United States, 
through two naval officers, estab- 
lished (1) a principle in inter- 
national law, and (2) laid the 
foundations of the modern power 
and progress of Japan. 

In the harbor of Smyrna, Asia 
Minor, Captain N. D. Ingraham, 
commanding the sloop St. Louis, learned that Martin 
Koszta was held a prisoner by the'Austrians in that 
port. Koszta had been a subject of Hungary and a 
rebel against Austrian rule. He had, how- 
ever, escaped to America, and had taken 
out papers preparatory to becoming a 
citizen of the United States. Captain Ingraham, in 
command of one small ship against several Austrian ' 




MILLARD FILLMORE 

Born Cayuga County, 
New York, February 7, 
1800; political leader in 
New York from 1829; 
elected Vi c e-Pr e s i d e n t, 
1848; succeeded to Presi- 
dency on death of Taj-lor in 
1850; candidate of Ameri- 
can Party for President, 
18.56. Died 1874. 



Martin 
Koszta 
incident 



Pierce also had served in tlie Mexican Wa 



TREATY WITH JAPAN 247 

warships, requested that Koszta be delivered to him. 
When the request was curtly refused, Ingraham de- 
manded his release within a stated time, or he would 
open fire. After telling Koszta that he would be 
hanged, the Austrians tested the determination of 
the Americans to the moment when Ingraham, watch 
in hand, cleared the deck of the St. Louis and pre- 
pared for action. The Austrians 
then yielded, and Koszta was 
saved. ^^ 

The Koszta incident took place 
in 1853. In the same year. Com- 
modore M. C. Perry visited Japan 
and succeeded in bringing about a 
treaty with that country, treaty with 
Up to that time Japan J^^^"' ^^^^ 
FRANKLIN PIERCE had rcfuscd intimate intercourse 

Born H i 1 1 s b o r o , New . . , . . . , , 

Hampshire, November 2.3, With WCStcm UatlOUS ; DUt SOOU 
1804. Political leader in t i i 

^J'Z Hampshire from attcr this trcatv was made she be- 

1829: elected to House of -^ 

Representatives and to g^U to WClCOmC WCStem mcthodS. 

United State Senate; ^ 

PrTs'^iden^'fsTs-^^r: ^^ ^ woudcrfully short period of 
^'*''^^^^^' time she progressed far ahead of 

all other Oriental peoples, and became recognized as 
one of the great World Powers. 

^" Iiiji'raham was one of the youthful iiudshipmen in the second 
war against Great Britain (see p. 202). He said he knew that the 
Austrians were well able to " blow me out of the water/' but that 
he would fig'ht and die for what he believed was a right of his 
country. His deed was gratefully recognized in the Old World and 
in the New. Congress awarded him a medal ; the Grerman immi- 
gi-ants of Chicago gave him a silver ser^-ice ; and the working-men 
of Great Britain raised, by penny subscriptions, the money for a 
handsome present. 




248 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

The Struggle to Control the Kansas-Nebraska Terri- 
tory. — Pierce had been elected President by a very 
large majority from the Avhole Union, and it seemed 
as if an era of good feeling was about to set in. In 
the North, William Lloyd Garrison and the more 
Political and extrcme abolitionists who were denounc- 
str*ife°again ^^^8' ^^^^ South and endangering the Union 
aroused ^^^^ been attacked by mobs in the streets of 
Boston and other cities. In the South, ''the fire 
eaters,'/ as they were called, Avere rebuked by con- 
servative men and many of them were defeated for 
reelection. But, as in the time of Monroe, political 
quiet preceded a period of the bitterest contention. 

In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, 
introduced a bill for the organization of the "Ne- 
braska Territory, " which included the present States 
of Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Mon- 
Nebraska taua, with parts of Wyoming and Colorado. 
BUI, 1854 According to the plan proposed by Douglas, 
States were to be formed from this Territory and 
admitted ivitli or witJiout slavery as it sJiould he de- 
cided by the settlers themselves. This he called the 
doctrine of ''popular'' or "squatter" sovereignty. 

The whole of this territory was north of the 
36° 30' boundary line of the Missouri Compromise 
(p. 211). Douglas argued, however, that the spirit 
of the Missouri Compromise had already been vio- 
lated by the admission of California as a "free 
State," part of which was below the extended line. 
He further argued that, if the settlers wanted either 
slavery or free labor, they should have what they 
wished. 



KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL 



249 



The arguments of Douglas were plausible, and the 
"Kansas-Nebraska" bill was passed. He certainly 




had some right on his side; but no measure could 
have aroused more bitterness and contention. Im- 
mediately there began a fierce struggle for the politi- 



250 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

cal control of the territory in question. Great anti- 
slavery orators, amid considerable disapproval in 
their own sections, were successful in rais- 
conlfoi^of**' ing money for sending to Kansas settlers 
Kansas providcd wlth arms and munitions. 

Springfield rifles came to be known as ^'Beecher's 
Bibles,'' so-called after Henry Ward Beecher, one of 
the great orator-ministers of that time. 

On the other hand, the extremists in the South 
prepared for battle in similar spirit. Missouri was 
near at hand; and those interested in maintaining 
slavery established themselves chiefly on the north 
side of the Kansas River, while ''free-State'' people 
settled chiefly on the south side. Neither party was 
disposed to heed the result of elections. In 1856 the 
town of Lawrence was attacked by pro-slavery men ; 
and, in the same year, a party of free-State men 
under John Brown surprised and killed some settlers 
on the Pottawotomie Creek.^^ 

At Topeka, as early as 1855, the ''free-State" 
faction had drawn up a Constitution which prohibited 
slavery ; but their opponents took no part in the pro- 
ceedings. Another State Constitution was drawn up 
at the neighboring town of Lecompton. This Consti- 
tution favored slavery; but when it was submitted 

" John Brown was a religious fanatic. He killed his victims 
at night, without warning-. Even the bodies of the \detims were 
mutilated after death. In doing so he was persuaded he was doing 
God's will. There were other murders in " bleeding Kansas " 
committed, first by one side and then by the other; Brown's " ven- 
geance" has received gi-eater prominence because of his greater 
brutality and because of his later attempt to arouse a sen-ile in- 
surrection in Virginia (p. 259). 



THE SUMNER-BROOKS AFFAIR 251 

to a vote it was rejected by the settlers. The slave 
State advocates were soon outnumbered, and Kansas 
finally voted to exclude slavery altogether. Kansas 
was not admitted into the Union, however, until 1861. 
Sectional sentiment was further inflamed by an 
assault made upon Senator Charles Sumner, of 
Massachusetts, by Eepresentative Preston Brooks, 
of South Carolina. Sumner had used extremely of- 
fensive language in reference to 
Senator 'Butler, who was a relative 
of Brooks and who was then ab- 
sent in South Carolina. Brooks, 
after vainly seeking an apology 
from Sumner, approached the lat- 
ter in the Senate, and, after stat- 
ing the purpose of his visit, struck 
Sumner with a gutta- 

The Sumner- 

EDGAR ALLAN POE percha walkmg cane. Brooks 

^ T affair 

Born Boston, January SumUer, a VCrV largO 
19, 1809. Brought up in ' ♦^ . .^ _ ^ 

Richmond; educated at man, was scatcd at his desk. He 

University or Virginia; ' 

8horU^tory.'^DTed,''Baili- Taiscd Ms arms to ward off the 

more. October 7, 1849. ^J^^^ ^^ BrOOks, but hc SCCmcd 

stunned or unable to resist, eventually falling to the 
floor. Such was the state of feeling at the time of 
this unfortunate episode that, although Cass, of 
Michigan, and other Senators expressed their in- 
dignation over* Sumner's indecent expressions; and, 
although Brooks was censured by the House, both 
men were regarded in their own sections as worthy 
of special honors — one as the victim of a brutal 
assault, and the other as the avenger of a grievous 
insult. 




252 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



New parties 
formed 
during ad- 
ministration 
of Pierce 



Two new political parties sprang into prominence 
during the administration of President Pierce. One 
of these was the short-lived ''Know-Nothing" or 
''American" party; and the other was the 
Eepnblican party, which was destined to 
become a great power. The cliief principle 
of the ' ' American Party ' ' was stated in the 
expression: "Put none but Americans on guard." 
The party wished to limit the in- 
fluence and activities of aliens in 
American politics. When, how- 
ever, its members were asked 
about its purposes and policies, 
they replied: "I know nothing." 
For a short while the party was 
very successful in carrying local 
elections. 

The Republican party may be 
said to have had its beginning 




NATHANIEL HaU IHURNE 

Born at Salem, Massa- 
chusetts, July 4, ISO-i. 
Educated at Bowdoin Col- -, •, . i t i 

lege; became the greatest uudcr some oak trccs at Jacksou, 

of the early American 
novelists. Died, Ply- 
mouth, New Hampshire, 
May 19, 1864. 



Michigan. Here, in 1854, after the 
passage of Douglas's Kansas- 
Nebraska bill, a large number of people met and 
declared their opposition to any extension of slavery ; 
and it was recommended that a convention of dele- 
gates from the free States be called. Owing to the 
intense feeling aroused in the South by the 
Republican violcut attacks of the extreme abolitionists, 
"^' the new party was almost necessarily a 

party organized along sectional lines; but it could 
appeal strongly to voters in much the larger, the 
more prosperous, and the more populous section of 



DRED SCOTT DECISION 253 

the Union. After some local successes in 1854, the 
Republicans, in 1856, nominated John C. Fremont, 
of California, for President.^^ The Democrats 
nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, and 
argued for the Union against the spirit of section- 
alism in politics. The American party nominated 
ex-President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan won ; but 
Fremont, leading the young Republican party, was a 
close second, while Fillmore car- x. 

ried Maryland only. \ 

Political and Sectional Issues \ 

During Buchanan's Administration. — 
During the term of President 
Buchanan, o t h e r northwestern 
Territories were formed into 
States or were preparing to be- 
come States (see Appendix for 
dates of admission) . It was clearly 
seen that the South was fighting a Pennsylvania? 

^ " 1791. Indiploi 

losing battle. All political issues under Jacksom .secretary 
CI ± oi btate under Folk; min- 

were involved in the question of t'L^ce^'^Pr'llfdeit!''?^^^^^^^^ 
slavery extension. In 1857, how- '^'- ^ied ises. 
ever, the United States Supreme Court decided, in 
the case of Dred Scott, that a slave was not 

. Dred Scott 

legally a citizen of the United States ; and decision, 
that he might be held as a slave in any 
territory controlled by the United States. This de- 
cision was directly opposed to the principal plank of 

^' Fremont was bom in SaA'annali, Georgia, January 31, 1813. 
He had been, prior to his nomination for the Presidency, eng-aged 
in exploring the western Territories for the United States 
Government. 




JAMES BUCHANAN 

Born Franklin County, 
April 23, 

matic service 



254 PERIOD OF POLITICAL 8TK1FE 

tlie Eepublican platform. Accordingly, Republican 
leaders denounced the decision and openly declared 
against its enforcement.^^ 

These opposing ideas were sharply contrasted in 
a series of public debates between Stephen A. 
Douglas, the author of the Kansas- 
Douglas's Nebraska bill, and Abraham Lincoln, a 
debates, 1858 u ^^^^^^^j lawyer" of Springfield, who had 

seen some service in the Illinois Legislature and in 
the House of Representatives. In 
1858, Douglas and Lincoln were 
respectively the Democratic and 
the Republican candidates for the 
United States Senate. 

Lincoln was opposed to the ex- 
tension of slavery into new terri- 
tory. On the other hand, he would 
not interfere with slavery where it 
HENRY wADswoRTH alrcady existed. He took no ex- 
Born'^To''rTa'i!d,\iaine. tremc vlcw ou clthcr sldc. He dis- 
fatd^^Bou'io!?^ coSe; ^kcd thc mcthods of the Northern 

professor at Bowdoin and ii-j' ' ± • j_i' ' i.' j. 

at Harvard; most popular, abolltlOniStS HI tlieir OppOSltlOU tO 
perhaps, ofAmerican poets. ^ t , ^ n 

Diedi8S2. slavery; but he was equally op- 

posed to the Southern advocates of the extension of 
slavery into new territory. Lincoln had been born in 
the South ; but he had been brought up in the North, 
and had seen the greater growth and prosperity of 

"^"^ Drecl Scott was born a slave in Missouri. HLs master, a 
snrgeon in the United States Army, took him into the Wisconsin 
Territoiy (now Minnesota). AVhen, some years later, Scott was 
ag-ain taken into Missouri, lawyers brought suit for his freedom 
on the plea that he had been taken into free temtoiy and that, 
therefore, he could resist further detention as a slave. 





LINCOLN ON EXTENSION OF SLAVERY 265 

that section. Like many Southerners who had freely- 
expressed themselves before sectional passions had 
been so greatly aroused, he earnestly hoped for some 
form of gradual emancipation that would take the 
slavery problem out of politics. Douglas won the 
Senatorship on his '^popular sovereignty'' doctrines ; 
but Lincoln had succeeded in forcing him into oppo- 
sition to the protection of slavery outside of slave 
territory and, therefore, to 
the Supreme Court decision 
in the case of Dred Scott — a 
decision favorable to the ex- 
treme Southern view of the 
slaveholder 's rights. This 
position of the Democratic t 
leader paved the way for __ 

division in the Democratic maegaeet fullee 

party and the subsequent , ^o'"" S^'^'^jl'^^^p?,^*' ^^^assa- 

J^ •^ i chusetts, May 23, 1810; noted for 

plppfinn nf Tn*nr»nln +n flip ^^-^^ unusual talents and associa- 

eieCLiOn Ol iJinCOin LO ine tions with distinguished men and 
-p) • 1 women of her time; teacher, editor, 

X^reSlClenCy. and Uterary critic; married, 1847, 

---.,, - the Marquis d'Ossoli. Died 1850. 

Lincoln's speeches were, 
as a rule, models of a simple style by which he made 
political issues clear to the masses of the people. 
Three quotations from his speeches will* help us to 
understand three important questions of his day. The 
first one is taken from his debates with 
Douglas in regard to the extension of extension of 
slavery, in the course of which he said: ^^^^^^ 
'^ A house divided against itself cannot stand. I be- 
lieve this government cannot endure permanently 
half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union 



256 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

to be dissolved. I do not expect the house to fall — 
but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will 
become all one thing or all the other. Either the 
opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread 
of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in 
the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinc- 
tion ; or its advocates will push it forward till it shall 
become alike lawful in all the States. ' ^ 

The second quotation refers to the attitude of the 
abolitionists. We find it in Lincoln's eulogy of Henry 
Clay, of whom he said, July 16, 1852: ^'Cast into 
life when slavery was already widely spread and 
deeply seated, he did not perceive, as I think no wise 
man has perceived, how it could be at once 
vi^ws on the eradicated without producing a greater evil 
r/the^^ even to the cause of human liberty itself, 
abolitionists jj-^ f^^i^^^ ^^^^ j^is judgment, therefore, 

ever led him to oppose both extremes of opinion on 
the subject. Those who would shiver into frag- 
ments the Union of these States, tear to tatters 
its now venerated Constitution, and even burn the 
last copy of the Bible, rather than slavery should 
continue a single hour, together with all their more 
halting sympathizers, have received, and are receiv- 
ing, their just execration. ' ' ^^ 

The third quotation, like the first one, is taken 

" Lincoln was denounced by some of the abolitionists as much 
as John Brown was praised by these earnest but intemperate re- 
formers. Wendell Phillips, one of the greatest of the abolitionist 
orators and preachers, called Lincoln the " Slave Hound of 
Illinois." It should be clearly understood that, while the aboli- 
tionists were right in their aims, their methods were ill-advised 
and their ideas of slavery as it existed in the South were influenced 



LINCOLN'S VIEWS ON RACE EQUALITY 267 

from the debate with Douglas, and is a statement of 
differences in race development as viewed by Lincoln. 
"I have no purpose, '^ declared Lincoln, in opposing 
the extension of slavery, ^'to introduce 
political and social equality between the views oa 
white and the black races. There is a phys- ^^" ^*^"^ ^*^ 
ical difference between the two which, in my judg- 
ment, would probably forever forbid their living 
together upon the footing of perfect equality, 
and, inasmuch as it becomes a necessity that there 
must be a difference, I, as well as Judge Douglas, am 
in favor of the race to which I belong having the 
superior position." ^^' 

by bias and ignorance. It should be remembered, also, that all 
abolitionists were not of the extreme type; but those who wanted 
to cooperate with the South in freeing the slave are more frequently 
called emancipationists y in order to distinguish them from the ex- 
treme type of abolitionist. 

" To the teacher : Lincoln modified this position somewhat in 
1864 and suggested that the more intelligent negroes be admitted 
to political privileges with the white races. In recent times this 
has become the attitude of the Southern States. 

Although Lincoln overshadowed Douglas in these debates and 
in after-life, it is but fair to recognize that Douglas was a very able 
man and that his arguments were well presented. Here, for ex- 
ample, is part of his argument on behalf of his Kansas-Nebraska 
bill. It is worth consideration and comparison with the statements 
from his mightier opponent. " There is but one possible way," he 
said, " in which slavery can be abolished, and that is by leaving the 
State, according to the principle of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, 
perfectly free to foiTU and regulate its institutions in its own way. 
That was the principle upon which this Republic was founded. 
. . . Under its operations slavery disappeared from . . . 
six of the twelve original slaveholding States ; and this gradual sys- 
tem of emancipation went on quietly, peacefully, and steadily so 
long as we in the free States minded our own business and left our 
neighbors alone. But the moment the abolition societies were 
17 



258 



PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 



Many of the Northern abolitionists were so far 
misled by false stories of slavery in the South that 
they believed the negroes were ready, with some out- 

r ~" • 1 




HARPERS FERRY, WEST VIRGINIA 

Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, the gateway to the Valley of Virginia during 
the War of Secession; captured and recaptured several times by Union and Con- 
federate forces. 

side assistance, to rise in revolt and put an end to 
slavery forever. Men of high principles, like Gerrit 
Smith, of New York, and Thomas Wentworth Hig- 

organized throughout the North, preaching a violent crusade 
against slavery in the Southern States, this combination neces- 
sarily caused a counter-combination in the South, and a sectional 
line was drawn which was a barrier to any further emancipation. 
Bear in mind that emancipation has not taken place in any one 
State since the Free-soil Party was organized as a political party in 
this country. . . . The moment the North proclaimed itself 
the determined master of the South, that moment the South com- 
bined to resist the attack, and thus sectional parties were formed 
and gradual emancipation ceased in all the Northern slaveholding 
States." 

Douglas was called by his admirers " The Little Giant." He 
was a small man with a big mind. Ijincoln, on the other hand, had 
a large mind, together with a large and powerful body. 



BROWN'S ATTEMPT TO INCITE UPRISING 259 

giiisoiij of Massachusetts, wore willing to aid so fierce 
a fanatic as John Brown (see p. 250) in a i:>roject to 
invade the South and incite a slave insur- 
rection. Consequently, Brown gathered a Brown's 
number of men, passed through the slave incftTa slave 
State of Maryland, and selected Harpers ''^"'^"^ 
Ferry, on the Potomac River, as the best point from 
which to invade the South. After collecting suffi- 
cient rifles and pikes for arming a thousand or more 
slaves, he suddenly crossed the Potomac during the 
night of October 16, 1859. He first shot a negro who 
attempted to defend the property of the Baltimore 
and Ohio Railroad, seized the United States iVrsenal, 
and captured a number of the citizens of the neigh- 
borhood, whom he held as ''hostages." 

Brown and his band, however, could make no 
further progress. The negroes, although they had 
been secretly informed of Brown's purposes, refused 
to rise in revolt ; and, on the following day, ^ ^Brown's 
Fort" was surrounded by citizens of Virginia and by 
a detachment of United States Marines under Colonel 
Robert E. Lee. Brown defended his position with 
desperate courage; but he and his surviving com- 
panions were captured, after they had killed a num- 
ber of citizens. After trial and conviction on the 
charge of conspiracy and murder, Brown was hanged 
at Charles Town, Virginia (West Virginia), Decem- 
ber 2, 1859.^^ 

^^^ Although Abraham Lincohi and other leaders of the Repub- 
lican party denounced John Brown and compared his invasion of 
Virginia to assassination and murder, the news of his death was 
marked by the tolling of church bells in the North; while he was 
extravagantly praised by such noted men as Emerson, Beechei', 
and Phillips. 



260 PERIOD OF POLITICAL 8T111FE 

Indignation against slavery, together with de- 
nunciation of slaveholders, had greatly increased 
since the publication, in 1852, of /^ Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," a novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. This 
book became very popular ; and, although it was writ- 
ten with a good purpose, it pictured" the worst possible 
side of slavery in the South and created false impres- 
vioient sions of the character of the Southern 
irouL^d in people. On the other hand, the people of 
the South fi^Q South, especially those of the ''Lower 
South, ' ' were aroused to such bitter resentment that 
they began to denounce the North ; and some of them 
expressed a desire to resent further alleged insult 
with violence. 

Such was the unhappy condition of the country 
when the Presidential campaign of 1860 began. In 
]\Iay, 1860, the Eepublicans met in Chicago 
campaign of aud nominated Abraham Lincoln for Presi- 
dent, although William H. Seward, of New 
York, had been, up to that time, the leading candi- 
date. Hannibal Hamlin was nominated for Vice- 
President. 

In April the Democrats had met in (Charleston, 
South Carolina. The Convention split, however, into 
two divisions. One of these declared for Douglas 
and his doctrine of ''popular sovereignty," although 
Douglas did not offer protection to slavery in any 
Territory before its continuance tinder a State 
government should he decided. The other faction 
declared that they supported the decision of the 
Supreme Court and stood for protection to the slave- 



PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN 261 

holder in the Territories until the Territories were 
ready to frame constitutions — for or against slavery. 
The Convention was obliged to adjourn without hav- 
ing made any nominations. It met later in Baltimore 
and the latter faction withdrew from the convention 
hall. Those who remained nominated Stephen A. 




Reproduced by courtesy of the owner, Arthur IJarneveld Bibbins 

A wool wheel (the larger one) and a flax-spinning wheel. The flax wheel came 
from Holland early in the seventeenth centurj-. Both wheels were taken to Michi- 
gan, in the great Northwest territory. They were carried from Bufi'alo to Toledo 
by boat and then by ox-team ninety miles into the undeveloped country. They 
made the' "home-spun" material for several generations of Americans of former 
days. 

Douglas, of Illinois, and Herschel V. Johnson, of 
Georgia. Those who withdrew nominated John C. 
Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph H. Lane, of 
Oregon. 



262 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

At this time the Constitutional Union Party was 
formed. This party nominated John Bell, of Ten- 
nessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. 
Their platform declared simply for ''The Constitu- 
tion, the Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

In the election that followed, Lincoln and Hamlin 
received a majority of the electoral votes and a 
plurality in the popular vote. In the former, the 
figures stood : 180 for Lincoln and Hamlin ; 72 for 
Breckinridge and Lane; 39 for Bell and Everett; 




^^.,r4 fi^h I 



The "Best Friend," the first locomotive built for the Charleston-Hamburg 
Railroad, in South Carolina. This engine had a brief existence. A negro who was 
left to guard it on one occasion became alarmed at the noise of the escaping steam. 
He finally tried to shut off the steam bv sitting on the safety-valve, whereupon the 
engine was blown up and the negro with it. Some of the early trains were fitted up 
with sails. They were advertised to arrive and leave before noon or in the afternoon, 
no one could say exactly when. 

and 12 for Douglas and Johnson. The popular vote 
stood, in round numhers : Lincoln, 1,800,000 ; 
Douglas 1,300,000; Breckinridge, 800,000; Bell, 
600,000. 

Progress in Industry and Invention from 1836 to 
i860. — The invention of several great labor-saving 
machines has been reviewed in previous chapters, 
such as the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the reaper, the 
chilled plow. In the fourth decade of the nineteenth 
century the threshing machine began to replace the 



INFLUENCE OF INVENTIONS AND INDUSTRY 263 

flail for separating the grain of the wheat from the 
straw. Abont this tim^ drills for sowing wheat re- 
placed the old method of scattering seed 
grain by hand. Before this period of in- inventions 
ventions people had to live ' ' close to the ^" ^°' ^^ ^^ 
land/' because each farmer could produce but little 
more than enough for his own use. After the first 
quarter of the nineteenth century, however, cities 
and towns began to grow 
rapidly. In the North cotton 
and woollen mills sprang up 
everywhere, but especially 
where water-power was con- 
venient. By 1840 the iron in- 
dustry in P e n n s y 1 v a n i a 
showed marked increases ; and 
by 1860 the manufactured 
products of the United States 
had almost reached the total ^ ^ „ ^r,.r>r,r.r.^r.^ 

CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON 

value of agricultural produce. Bom AnnapoUs, Maryland, 

o, ,1 September 20, 1737; studied law 

Although the ^Southern in Paris and London; elected to 

'-^ Continental Congress. 1775;signed 

States were far behind their ?,r.d^4l'°Ji °L'^^^^^^^^^^ 
Northern sisters in manuf ac- ^-^^^^^^^t. Died 1832. 

turing development, they excelled, for a time, in rail- 
road building. The first railroad prepared for steam 
locomotives was the Baltimore and Ohio, which was 
chartered in 1827. On July 4, 1828, Charles Carroll, 
of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of the Decla- 
ration of Independence, broke the first earth for the 
construction of the road. Although he was then 
ninety years old, he realized the importance of his 





264 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

part in developing the new idea. He said: ''I con- 
Fi„t sider this among the most important acts 

railroads ^f ^^^ life— second only to that of signing 
the Declaration of Independence, if second even 
to that." In 1833, the Charleston (South Caro- 
lina) and Hamburg Railroad was 
the longest in the world.^" Soon, 
however, the better developed and 
more populous North was build- 
ing more numerous and better 
equipped lines from all the rapidly 
growing industrial centres. 

One of the most important in- 
ventions of this period was the 
Hoe rotary printing press, which 

The Hoe WaS greatly improved in Countv.^PirViniyjInuar? 

pr^^ssandthe ^g^g^ It was invented by ^ti^'Lv^n^^t^^^^^^^^ 
newspapers Riehard M. and Peter S. r;r;?^^?l4i-6i • "'tYnTJ 

-^T rp,i • T p 1 1 • title of "Pathfinder of the 

Hoe. ihis wonderiul machme seas" through discoveries 

, •! 1 ji • e> of routes based on relations 

made possible the expansion or of trade winds and ocean 

^ currents; also called the 

the daily newspaper. The cheap w"""^Vpi^^ p^ /^^ ,^,1^ 

•^ J- -"■ i World; originator of the 

^' penny" newspaper had made its ^^rathe^^l^tLtl™^^^^^ 
regular appearance as early as SLens^fo^Su^Lm^ Co"n! 

-I Doo -r» • X* ^ federacy; refused Presi- 

l033. Press associations lOr pro- dency of Academy of 

. , , Sciences at Paris to help 

vidiiig a common news service to rebuild the south during 

^ Reconstruction. Died 

a number of newspapers were ^^^^• 
formed in 1850. 

The invention of the telegraph by S. F. B. Morse, 
in 1837, was put into practical use in 1844, when a 

" Rails were at first laid on wooden " stringers " parallel to the 
tracks. 



MATTHEW FONTAINE 

MAURY 



IMPROVEMENT IN SURGERY 



265 



message was sent over a line which had been con- 
structed between Baltimore and Washington. In 
1857 the first Atlantic cable connecting Telegraph 
America with Europe was laid. This ^nd cable 
achievement was made possible by the genius of 
Matthew Fontaine Maury and John M. Brooke, 
while Cyrus W. Field pushed the work to comple- 
tion.^^ 



1 




IJV.TING THE ATLANTIC CABLE 

This work, planned by Matthew Fontaine Maury, aided by the deep-sea sound- 
ing inventions of John M. Brooke, was carried to completion by the energy and 
determination of Cyrus W. Field. 

In 1842, Dr. Crawford W. Long, of Georgia, first 
began to use anaesthetics in the practice of surgery. 
Dr. Long reported his discovery to the improvement 
Georgia State Medical Society; but the ^^ surgery 
medical profession did not make general use of this 

^^ Brooke invented a deep-sea sounding apparatus, which en- 
abled engineers to learn more about the nature of the sea bottom 
and where it would be best to run the cable. 



266 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

discovery until W. F. Gr. Morton, a dentist of Boston, 
gave wide publicity to his own experiments in this 
line, which he began in 1846. 

Education. — Public school systems were begun in 
all the older States very soon after the formation of 
the Union. In Virginia, Thomas Jeiferson planned 
and presented a complete system of public education 
as early as 1779. Benjamin Franklin was also deeply 
interested in public education. Public support of 
these systems was, however, weak and halting for a 
long time. In 1837, New England was first fully 
awakened to the importance of public education 
by Horace Mann. This teacher and lecturer was 
born in Massachusetts in 1796, and died in Ohio 
in 1859. 

As we have seen (p. 180), plans for the higher 
education of women first appeared in the youngest of 
the original thirteen States. In the new Western 
States, systems of ]3ublic education were planned 
from the beginning of settlement. Here, again, we 
find the active mind and hand of Thomas Jefferson. 
The Ordinance of 1787 (x>. 168) provided for the 
encouragement of education. Furthermore, when 
a new State was admitted, a section in every town- 
ship, or one square mile in every thirty-six, was set 
aside for the support of the public schools. Later, 
another section was added, and the sale of land from 
these sections amounted to large sums of money. In 
total extent, the land thus set aside for sale was 
equivalent to the combined area of several States. 
Additional provision was likewise made for State 
universities. 



LITERATURE 267 

Literature. — In the previous pages there have been 
references to early American literary production. 
For instance, we found descriptive narrative that was 
at least composed on North American soil as early 
as the sixteenth century (p. 33). George Sandys 
wrote poetical translations at Jamestown, and John 
Smith may have prepared parts of his early narra- 
tive there. Bradford was preparing his interesting 
history of the Plymouth colony from the time of its 
settlement in 1620. In the seventeenth century ser- 
mons and political writings were published in great 
numbers, especially in the New England colonies ; but 
these compositions are not classed as literature. 
After the first quarter of the nineteenth century, 
however, several writers came into view with whose 
works we are all more or less acquainted. Indian 
customs and the pioneer life of the settler were put 
into story form by J. Fenimore Cooper and William 
Gihnore Simms. Nathaniel Hawthorne, the greatest 
of our early novelists, first attracted especial atten- 
tion in 1837. Poetry was represented by William 
Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 
Edgar Allan Poe, James Russell Lowell, and John 
Greenleaf Whittier. Besides these may be mentioned 
such poets and essayists as Ralph Waldo Emerson 
and Oliver Wendell Holmes. Many of our early 
State historians did their work in this period; and 
historians such as Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley 
began, or, as in the case of Prescott, completed their 
writings in the period under discussion. In 1828, 
Noah Webster published the first edition of his 
'^American Dictionary of the English Language." 



268 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

J. E. Worcester had issued his "Geographical Die- 
tionary" in 1817; and at the close of this period, 
1860; he brought out the first illustrated dictionary 
of the English language. There were many other 
writers actively at work during this period, some 
of whom, especially those of local interest, the 
student may profitably add to the partial list here 



Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading on. Discussion 

Abraham Lincoln, together with a number of men and women 
in the North and in the South, was greatly interested in the cohmi- 
zation of freed negroes in Africa. It was beUeved that the trans- 
ported negro, who had attained a position far in 
schemes ^°^ advance of his African brother, would help to civilize 
the so-called "Dark Continent." For many years 
prior to the War of Secession, earnest men and women were 
engaged in foiwarding* this plan of colonization. Money was 
raised; Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, was secured for 
colonization; and hundreds of the owners of slaves prepared to 
free their dependents." 

However, many difficulties arose. Extremists in either sec- 
tion objected to the plan, and politicians played upon these objec- 
tions. In many cases the negroes themselves refused to be enumci- 
pated and begged to be allowed to remain as they were. Never- 
theless, in 1820, Liberia was opened to settlement; 
and, in 1847, it was recognized as an independent 
Republic, with a form of government which was modelled after 
that of the United States. It was provided that no wliite man 
should be permitted either to vote or to hold property. The land 
and government was to be wholly in the hands of the negro race. 



^" On one occasion. President Lincoln undertook to send a 
shipload of freed negroes to an island in the West Indies; but he 
soon had to send for them, as they seemed unable to take care of 
themselves. He tried in vain to get the British, Danish, and 
French West Indies and the South Anierif-an countries to take the 
freed negroes as settlers or immigTants. 



NEGRO COLONIES IN AMERICA 269 

Letters from the newly freed negroes in Liberia to their 
foiiner owners have been preserved. Here are portions of a 
letter from one of them telling* about his efforts at farming and of 
his home life: 

" Edina, Gkand Bassa C-ounty, 

Republic of Liberia, 
May the 5th, 1849. 
" Dear Sir : — 

'' As an opportunity favorable to writing to you presents 
itself, 1 embrace it in addressing you ^vith a few lines. As it 
regards the health of my family and myself — I have not much 
cause to complain, we are as far as can be reasonably expected, 
getting on very well — as it regards our occupation in life it is as 
follows — I keep my blacksmiths tools in occupation so far as I 
have a run of work — at the same time — -I endeavor to keep up a 
small fami, as it regards the farming part of ray occupation, I 
might perhaps carry it on more extensively had I capital to cany 
it into effect. . . . 

. . . " And provided I do not try your patience I would be glad 
if you could send me a few yards of Alipacca for ladies dresses — ■ 
and as I am now commencing a new building — you will please to 
send me a half keg of lOd nails and half keg of 4d nails, and I 
will endeavor to make some returns. . . . 

. . . " My family are all in a thriving state, my wife whom I 
married in this country enjoys her health — we have five children — 
one of them a fine boy — three of them attend school regularly, 
two of them can read passages in the Bible. . . . Now in clos- 
ing Receive my best respects together with those of my famity — 
the children all join me in love to their Grandmother — whom they 
have never seen — give our love and respects to your family and all 
enquiring friends." 

Other emancipated negroes were colonized in some of the 
Noi'thern States and in^C'^anada; but these colonies never thrived. 
The whites would dispossess them of all their property, and the con- 
dition of the negroes frequently became pitiable in Negro 
the extreme. The abolitionists did little for these colonies in 
freed negroes, since they devoted themselves to the "^^"'^^ 
task of " making slavery odious." A large part of their purpose, 
fi'ankly stated, was to denounce the slaveholders. William Lloyd 



270 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

Garrison, tlie most noted leader of the abolitionists, wrote in his 
newsi3aper. The Liberator: " I shall strenuonsly contend for the 
immediate enfranchisement of our slave poj)ulation. I will be as 
harsh as truth and as uncompromising- as justice. I do not wish 
to think, or speak, or write with moderation. I am in earnest. 
I will not retreat a single inch, and I Avill be heard." 

The following- story illustrates the g-enerally contented con- 
dition of the negro slaves and their devotion to the families to 
Relations which they " belong-ed." During the Revolution, 
between Governor Heard, of Georgia, was captured by the 

master and British; but he was later rescued from prison by the 
daring of " Mammy " Kate, a faithful sen^ant in the 
Heard family. Governor Heard desired to reward " Mammy " 
Kate by setting her free. This devoted servant, however, not 
only refused to accept her freedom, but drew up a Avill by 
the terms of which she gave each one of her chihlren to the 
several children of the Governor to be their slaves forever. 
There is little doubt that if the abolitionists of the North had 
known of the good feeling- which existed between the whites and 
the blacks of the South they would have worked hand in hand 
with the emancipationists of the latter section. The question of 
slavery would have been kept out of political strife, and there 
Avould have been little or none of that terrible bitterness of mis- 
understanding- in which good people on one side denounced 
equally good people on the other as either actual criminals or 
as would-be murderers. 

Occasionally the records of histoiy do not seem to be very 
fair, chiefly because of what is omitted. Everybody knows, for 
instance, that 300 Spartans fought to the last at 
Fontaine Thermopylae; but few realize that twice as many 
Maury, the Tliespians also volunteered to stay and die with these 
^Te* s^as^^ ° Spartans. Our own history appears to have neglected 
Matthew Fontaine Maury, the greatest of our scien- 
tists. When we think of the Atlantic Cable, we think of the 
achievement and abilities of the noted merchant, Cyrus W. Field. 
Field himself said of that accomplishment : " Maui-y furnished 
the brains ; I did the work." 

Matthew Fontaine Maui';y^ was the first scientist of the world 
to map out regular ocean routes for ocean-going vessels; he was 
the first to study and understand the regular coiu^e of ocean cur- 



THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN THE EAST 271 

rents and of trade winds. He was rightly called the " Pathfinder 
of the Seas," and his discoveries saved to commerce countless 
millions of dollars every year. No other man had ever done so 
much for the trade of all the world. He w^as awarded special 
honors b}^ the grateful governments and peoples of France, Great 
Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria, Belgium, Portugal, Denmark, 
Sweden, Holland, and smaller nations. 

Nor did his field of service end here. He studied land winds 
and storms as he did sea winds and currents. From these studies 
he worked out plans for the United States Weather Bureau, 
although the idea may have been suggested to Maury by the 
studies of those earlier American scientists, Thomas Jefferson 
and Benjamin Franklin."" Aftei^vards, in the Confederate ser- 
vice, Maury made the first successful experiments in submarine 
torpedo warfare. After the war, he refused to accept the splendid 
offer of the Presidency of the French Academy of Sciences in 
order to help rebuild a war-impoverished school in his native State. 
His achievements were of greater value to mankind than were the 
brilliant victories of his fellow-Tennesseean, Andrew Jackson. 
Both had been poor boys and both had to struggle against great 
odds in getting a start in life.'^ 

The siDirit of democracy which so distinguished the West and 
which triumphed under Jackson and Harrison caused great politi- 
cal unrest in the East. Most of the Eastern States yielded to the 
demand for the extension of suffrage to men, regard- 
less of position in life or the holding of property. '^^^ "^^ °f 
In Rhode Island, however, an insurrection broke out. the East 
This was led by Thomas AV. Dorr and is known as 
" Dorr's Rebellion." United States troops were called upon and 
the " rebellion " Avas put down without serious difficulty. Subse- 
quently, reforms were begun and the suffrage was extended. New 
York was threatened with similar trouble, due to the survival of 
some of the features of the old colonial patroonships (p. 54). 

^^ Both Franklin and Jefferson had tried to follow and study 
the course of stomis by the slow method of correspondence by 
stage coach. 

^ Neither Andrew Jackson nor Maury was born in Tennessee; 
but both began active life in that State. See sketches, pp. 218, 264. 



272 PERIOD OF POLITICAL STRIFE 

Reference list of Presidents from 1789 to 1861:'' 

George Washington 1789-1797 

John^ Adams 1797-1801 

Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809 

James Madison 1809-1817 

James Monroe 1817-1825 

John Quincy Adams 1825-1829 

Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 

Martin Van Buren 1837-1841 

James Knox Polk 1845-1849 

S7;rore;::::::::::::::li«^«-i«53 

Franklin Pierce 1853^1857 

James Buchanan 1857-1861 

^It is perhaps easier for the pupil to recall Presidential 
succession by the date of election, because Presidential elections 
occur in the years divisible by four. 



CHAPTER XII 

From 1861 to 1876 — Period of Division and Reunion 

Secession of the Lower South; Period of Doubt and 
Uncertainty, December 20, i860, to April 12, 1861. — In 
1856, when Fremont had been the candidate of the 
Republicans for President, a strong antagonism had 
developed, especially in the "Lower South," to "a 
party which had no following in the Southern 
States. ' ' Threats were then made that, in the event 
of RepuMican victory, the Southern States would 
withdraw from the Union. This threat was renewed 
in 1860 ; and, when it became known that Lincoln was 
elected, South Carolina led the way in passing an 
ordinance of secession. This ordinance was passed 
by a State convention, December 20, 1860. It was 
followed by similar action on the part of six other 
' ' Cotton States ' ' by February 1, 1861. These States 
were Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, and Texas. 

Some of the secessionists spoke of possible inter- 
ference by the Federal Government and talked of 
war. These, moreover, believed that since the South 
furnished by far the greater part of the views of the 
world's supply of cotton, the sudden shut-- SU"'''' 
ting off of that supply would bring the na- ^*^*®^ 
tions to terms and force them to recognize the inde- 
pendence of the South. 

Others who favored secession used language 
18 273 



274 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 




ABRAHAM LINC01.N 

Born Hardin County, Kentucky, February 12, 1S09. Almost wholly self- 
educated; studied law and entered public life in Illinois; member of legislature, 
1834-'42; elected to House of Representatives, 1840; opposed extension of 
slavery and also methods of the abolitionists; elected President, 1860; opposed 
secession and waged war for preservation of Union; after the war, opposed re- 
construction plans of radical Republicans; re-elected President, 1864; shot by assas- 
sin April 14, and died April 15, 1865. Statue by St. Gaudcns, erected in Chicago. 

which sounded like echoes of the words used by 
Josiah Quincy (p. 199) and New England anti- 
expansionist leaders from the time of the acquisition 
of Louisiana to that of the annexation of Texas. 



VIEWS IN THE NORTH 275 

Their cry was for peaceable separation if possible, 
but separation by force if necessary. The majority 
of those who favored secession were of this class. 

In some of these States there were strong minori- 
ties opposed to secession. Their most noted leader 
was Alexander H. Stephens. Stephens contended 
that the advantages of the Union were very great, 
and that the South might hope for redress of its 
grievances within it ; that separation was ill-advised ; 
and that stej^s should be taken to compromise matters 
with the party about to go into power in the following 
March. It is worth noting that Stephens, afterwards 
Vice-President of the Confederate States, was 
acquainted with Abraham Lincoln and that he was 
in correspondence with Lincoln at this time, or up to 
the time that Georgia decided in favor of secession. 

The majority of the people of the *^ Upper South" 
did not favor secession, and they expressed their 
views very clearly at the j^olls. These States in- 
cluded North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, views of the 
Delaware, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ar- ?.up^per°^ *^^ 
kansas. Nevertheless, although the people south." 
were, for the most part, opposed to secession and still 
hoped to elf ect a compromise of some kind to restore 
the Union, they were firmly opposed to coercion or 
war in the effort to regain the seceding States. 

For some months, opinion in the North, as in the 
, South, was divided. There had been the views in the 
same jealous guarding of State sovereignty 
in one section as in another. As late as 1845, the 
Massachusetts Legislature had avowed the right of 
secession in opposing the annexation of Texas ; and 



276 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

that State and others were then openly defying the 
Federal fugitive slave laws.^ 

In the North there were three distinct views as to 
the secession of the seven ^'Cotton States" of the 
South. A very strong party was opposed to any 
attempt to force the seceding States back into the 
Union. They contended that the right to withdraw 
from the Union had been understood, and, in some 
cases, declared by the States from the beginning. 
The Union, they said, had been formed for mutual 
protection and in mutual good-will; and a Union 
held together by force of arms would be a weak one 
and contrary to the American spirit respecting the 
rights and privileges of local self-government. 

The second view,^ which w^as upheld by President 
'Buchanan until his term of office expired, seemed to 
contradict itself. Buchanan denied the right of 
secession, but declared that the Federal Government 
had no right to coerce the States into returning to 
the Union. 

The third view was best expressed by Abraham 
Lincoln ; and, as events turned out, this view was to 
shape the destinies of the country and, finally, to 
make the Federal Government supreme. Lincoln's 

^ Daniel Webster, of Massacliiisetts, had sounded a new note 
in defence of an " indissoluble Union." On the other hand, 
Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, had prepared to- use force against 
South Carolina in the case of nullification in that State (p. 221). 
At a later date, however, Webster warned his countrymen that if 
Federal laws guaranteeing certain rights to the Southern slave- 
holders were further defied, the South '' would no longer be bound 
to keep the compact. A bargain," he said, " broken on one side, is 
broken on all sides." 



EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE 277 

doctrine might be summed up in the toast once re- 
sponded to by President Jackson : ' ' The Union : it 
must be preserved." - 

Nowhere more than in the central States was the 
breaking up of the Union himented. When the first 
Union, or the Confederation of Revolutionary times, 
was falling to pieces, Virginia had proposed the con^ 
vention which resulted in the framing of the Efforts at 
Federal Constitution. She now proposed a ^^"^^'-'^^^^^^ 
second great convention. Twenty-one States sent 
representatives, but Congress did not accept any of 
the recommendations proposed and the convention 
failed to accomplish anything. 

It must not be thought from this that the 
Republican party, as a whole, was opposed to peace 
measures. In an effort to remove what w^as supposed 
to be the main grievance of the Southern secessionist, 
Congress passed, by a two-thirds vote, a proposed 
amendment to the Constitution which would forever 
forbid any Federal interference with slavery. 

The issue, however, had passed beyond any ques- 
tion of slavery. From the point of view of the people 

^ To the teacher : It must be remembered, also, that Lincoln 
had to contend with a considerable body of extreme abolitionists 
who had previously advocated disunion. These abolitionists did 
not want any further association with the Southern slaveholdei^. 
Horace Greeley, editor of the powerful New York Tribune^ 
declared that the Southern States were " erring sisters " who 
should be permitted to " depart in peace." A number of the 
leading' orators, ministers, and writers welcomed or advocated dis- 
union. Among these were James Russell Lowell, Theodore 
Parker, and Henry Ward Beecher. For a while, many of these 
men attacked Lincoln with extreme violence and added very greatly 
to the difficulties of his position. 



278 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 




A SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY FORMED 



279 




of the lower South, it had become one of self-govern- 
ment or of State sovereignty, and then of indepen- 
dence. It was believed, also, that 
too many people in either section 
disliked and abused the people of 
the other section; and that their 
social and economic differences 
were too great for them all to live 
peacefully together "under one 
roof." 

A central government for the 
seceding vStates had already been 
created at Montgomery, a southern 
Alabama. Jefferson ^^rm'ef at'"^ 
Davis, of Mississippi, Suiryr"^' 
was elected President, ^^" 
and Alexander H. Steiohens, of 
Georgia, Vice-President, of the 
"Confederate States of North 
America." The Constitution of 
the new government was like that of the United 
States, except that tariff taxation and governmental 
bounties were forbidden, and the sovereignty of the 
States was expressly set forth. There were other 
minor changes; for example, the President was to 
be elected for a term of six years, and provision was 
made for the regular appearance on the floor of 
Congress of Cabinet officers.^ 

' Both the one-term Presidency and the admission to Cong-ress 
of Cabinet officers have been strongly advocated for the Federal 
Government — the former chiefly by Democratic leaders, and the 
latter by some noted Rej^ublicans. 



JEFFERSON DAVIS 

Bom Christian County, 
Kentucky, June 3, 18U8. 
Graduate West Point, 
1828; served in Mexican 
War under Taylor; as sec- 
retary of war under Presi- 
dent Pierce, reorganized 
and enlarged the army; 
UnitedStates Senator from 
Mississippi at time of 
secession; resigned and 
was elected President 
Southern Confederacy; 
imprisoned after the war, 
but was not brought to 
trial. Died 1889. 



280 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

Although efforts were at once made to induce the 
States of the upper South to join the Southern Con- 
federacy in order to make the new union stronger, 
these efforts met with no success. On the surface, 
peace existed between the Confederacy at Mont- 
gomery and the Federal Government at Washington. 
Vessels plying between Northern and Southern ports 
flew the Stars and Stripes from one end and the Con- 
federate flag from the other. Commissioners were 
appointed by the Confederate Government to make a 
treaty with the Federal Government to promote trade 
relations and to secure possession of Federal forts 
and arsenals within the limits of the seceding States. 

The Confederate Government had been in exist- 
ence at Montgomery but a few weeks when Abraham 
Lincoln, in his inaugural address, declared, as had 
^ .^ ^ Jackson in 1832 (p. 221), his intention to 

President ^-^ ' ' 

Lincoln euforcc lu all the States the laws of the 

announces . i • n 

intention to United States. Lincoln referred especially 
Federal laws to the collectiou of dutics in the Southern 
seceding ports. He declared that the right of seces- 
^*^*®^ sion did not exist, and that the Federal 

Government could properly use force to compel a 
State to remain in the Union. The Union, he said, 
was older than the Constitution and the States. 

These expressions meant war, if the Southern 
States persisted in secession and in holding or at- 
tempting to gain possession of Federal forts within 
their borders. Evidently, however, Lincoln's own 
party and the members of his Cabinet were not 
unitedly behind him; and many Southern leaders 



DIVISION OF COUNSEL 



281 



continued to believe that they would be able to es- 
tablish an independent government without an ap- 
peal to arms. This belief was encouraged ^. ^ , 

■^ ° Division of 

by semi-official promises from Washington counsel and 
that the Federal forts would be surren- resulting 
dered. Under Buchanan, the steamer Star ^^^ "°^ 
of the West had been fired upon when it attempted 
to carry supplies to Port Sumter, in Charleston 




President Lincoln and his Cabinet officers. Secretary of State William H. 
Seward is seated at the table on the right; Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton ia 
seated at the left. 



harbor.* Promises had then been made, which 
were renewed as late as April 8, that the forts 
would be given up. On that date, William H. Seward, 
Secretary of State, wrote to Justice Campbell, of the 
United States Supreme Court : ' 'Faith as to Sumter 

* This occurred January 9, 1861, and is sometimes referred to 
as the " first shot " of the war. No one was killed or wounded 
and the vessel withdrew. 



282 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

fully kept — wait and see. ' ' On the same day, how- 
ever, a message from the President was sent to 
Charleston informing Governor Pickens that the 
Federal Government was sending supplies to Fort 
Sumter. 

The Confederate authorities declared that this 
was an act of war. Major Robert Anderson, in com- 
mand of Fort Sumter, w^as called upon to surrender. 
He refused, and, on the 12tli of April, when the 
Federal fleet had arrived off the coast of South 
Carolina, General P. G. T. Beauregard, the 
Fort Sumter, Confederate commander, opened fire on 
the fort. The Federal fleet took no part in 
the combat ; and Anderson, after a spirited but hope- 
less defence, surrendered his small command of less 
than 100 men without loss of life. 

The news of the fall of Fort Sumter was flashed 
President tlirougliout tlic couutry, and served to 
caiTfir'^ arouse the fighting spirit of the North, 
volunteers President Lincoln immediately called for 
75,000 volunteers, ^Ho suppress combinations against 
the laws of the United States." 

Secession in the Upper South; War Begins; 
Campaigns of i86i. — The upper South had refused to 
unite with the lower South in secession; but, as be- 
opposition fore stated, the great majority of the people 
uVeVsouth^; wcrc intensely opposed to a war of coercion. 
s^tateT"^^ Virginia refused to contribute her quota of 
secede ^^^^ -^ rcspousc to the President's call for 

troops, and passed an ordinance of secession on April 
17. Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee fol- 



FIRST BLOODSHED IN BALTIMORE 283 

lowed in succession the jirecedent set by Virginia. 
Kentucky endeavored to maintain a neutral attitude, 
but failed, and her citizens were divided in senti- 
ment and action. The eastern half of Maryland was 
strongly inclined to unite with the South. Meas- 
ures were, however, soon taken by the Federal Gov- 
ernment to suppress Southern sentiment and to 
arrest sympathizers with the Confederacy, includ- 
ing the Mayor of 'Baltimore and several members 
of the Maryland Legislature. Thousands of men 
went South and joined the Confederate forces. 
In Missouri there was a short struggle for the control 
of that State, in which the Union forces were finally 
triumphant. In some of the Northern States, as in 
Indiana, the State government undertook to suppress 
Southern sympathies on the one hand, or anti-war 
demonstrations on the other. 

The first blood was shed in Baltimore on April 19, 
1861. This occurred during the march of the Sixth 
Massachusetts Regiment through the streets of that 
city from one railroad station to another, nrst biood- 
Missiles were thrown at the soldiers. Shots l^auimore, 
were fired either by accident or by com- ^^"^ ^^' ^^" 
mand, and twelve citizens and four soldiers were 
killed. Further loss of life was prevented only by 
the timely arrival of the Mayor and the city police 
force.^ 

Soon after Virginia seceded, the Confederate 
capital was removed from Montgomery to Richmond. 

^ The city of Baltimore, like the State of Kentucky, en- 
deavored, for a while, to remain neutral. No one seemed to 
know what course the Federal Government would pursue. 



284 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

Neither government was prepared for war ; and, in 

those days, such was the ignorance of the people of 

one section with regard to those of the other that 

volunteers lightly enlisted as if for a "holi- 

Further o J 

preparations day Campaign" to put to immediate rout a 
far inferior foe. Neither people knew the 
determination, courage, and character of the other. 
Only the army officers w^ho had fought side by side in 
Mexico realized to any extent the kind of struggle 
that was about to begin. 

The officers of the United States army and navy 
had a hard choice to make. Those in the North were 
called upon to fight against their former classmates 
and comrades in the Mexican War and in the Indian 
campaigns. Those from the South had to choose be- 
tween the Federal service on the one hand, and all the 
ties of home and kindred on the other. Most of these 
officers, like Eobert E. Lee and Albert Sydney 
Johnston, resigned from the Federal service and 
went with their respective States. On the other hand, 
many able officers, like George H. Thomas, of Vir- 
ginia, and David G. Farragut, of Tennessee, remained 
in the Federal service.^ 



" Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, an officer in th^ 
Federal army, a great-grandson of one President and a grandson 
of another, has presented this difficulty of choice more clearly, 
perhaps, than any other writer. 

Thousands of men from the mountainous districts of the South 
enlisted in* the Union armies. The South regarded these Unionists 
very much as the colonies had regarded the Tories in the Revolu- 
tion; but these differences in the War of Secession did not result 
in the fierce partisan warfare of that earlier day. 



RESOURCES OF THE OPPOSING SECTIONS 285 

At the time of the outbreak of the War of Seces- 
sion,'^ the 23 States remaining in the Federal Union 
had a population of 21,000,000. In the 11 States of 
the Confederacy there were approximately 6,000,000 
whites and 4,000,000 negroes. After the war began, 
the little immigration that had previously ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ 
i'one into the South ceased altogether. In the opposing 

^ __, sections 

the North it continued as before. The 
great Northwest was then developing more rapidly 
than ever; and that section furnished, in large 
measure, the food supplies of the Federal forces. 
On the other hand, the Eastern States furnished, for 
the most part, arms, munitions, and other supplies. 
The United States had a well-established govern- 
ment and unlimited resources to draw upon for both 
army and navy forces; and it was the latter which 
decided the issue of the war by cutting off the South 
from outside supplies. 

The Southern States, on the other hand, were 



' To the teacher: The term here used to designate the sec- 
tional conflict in this countiy was preferred by Charles Francis 
Adams, who did much towards freeing from sectional bias and 
prejudice the interpretation of United States history. With re- 
gard to the matter of nomenclature, he wrote : . . . " The only 
l)roper designation of the war, as I contend, is, therefore, the ' War 
of Secession.' The issue having been raised over the constitutional 
I'ight of secession — that issue was fought out and decided. The 
whole struggle was between cei-tain States claiming the constitu- 
tional right of secession and the United States as a nationality 
insisting that no such right existed. This issue was fairly pre- 
sented, thoroughly fought out, and finally decided. There can, 
therefore, in my judgment, be no sort of question that the conflict 
can only be properly and distinctively designated as the ' War of 
Secession.' " 



286 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 



almost wholly agricultural, and a very large propor- 
tion of that agriculture consisted in the raising of 
cotton. Largely for this reason, it turned out that 
the Confederate armies could not be fed sufficiently 
while in the field. So that ^'King Cotton," upon 
which the Low^er South based its main hope for secur- 
ing aid from abroad, proved, on the contrary, a great 
weakness, when the superior Federal navy compelled 




A battery directed against Fort Sumter, which held out against the Federal 
forces from the beginning of the War of Secession to the close, when Charleston was 
evacuated by the Confederate forces. Between August 12, 1863, and January 1, 
1864, 26,867 cannon-shot were fired at the fort, about 20,000 of which struck against 
or within its enclosure. 

the South to turn to itself for its own support. In 
the South there was, at the beginning of the war, 
scarcely a manufactory of any sort from its northern 
borders to the Gulf of Mexico.^ 

' At the beginning of the war, the Northern States suffered 
from the loss of a profitable trade with the South. Southern cot- 
ton had been bought at comparatively low rates, and the manu- 
factured products had been sent back to the South at as high prices 
as the tariff of the day permitted without underselling by foreign 



THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN 287 

The first aggressive movements of Federal 
armies in the East were carried out in western Vir- 
ginia by General George B. McClellan. Federal 
These movements were successful and led western ^ 
to the permanent holding of much of that IreSrou of 
part of the State, which was inclined to be Virginia, 
Northern in sympathy. Later, steps were i86i-'63 
taken to divide Virginia, and the new State of 
West Virginia was formed and admitted into the 
Union during the progress of the war.^ 

Minor engagements in the eastern section of the 
State resulted in the defeat of the Federal forces. 
Although war had been declared in April, the main 
Federal army of the East was not believed The battle of 
to be prepared for battle until July. By Manass^a^', "'^ 
the middle of that month, General Irvin J^^^ ^i. im 
McDowell, with 30,000 men, pushed into Virginia in 
answer to the popular cry of ' ' On to Richmond ! ' ' 

Opposing McDowell was a Confederate force of 
20,000 men under General Beauregard. They were 
posted at Bull Run, near Manassas, on the railway 
route to Richmond. Across the Blue Ridge Moun- 

competition. This loss was soon offset, however, by an increasing 
manufacture of war supplies. In the North, therefore, indus- 
trial prosperity followed in a manner not unlike that in which the 
whole country profited when the great war broke out in Europe 
in 1914. 

" Delegates representing those who opposed the secession of 
Virginia met at Wheeling in June, 1861. These delegates declared 
that they represented the State of Virginia; and that they were, 
therefore, entitled to create a new State. Their action was ap- 
proved by Congress and by a proclamation of President Lincoln, 
April 20, 1863. 



288 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

tains there was an additional Confederate force of 
9000 men under General Joseph E. Johnston. This 
force was to be kept 'engaged by an army of 20,000 
men under General Eobert Patterson, whose duty 
it was to prevent Johnston from uniting with 
Beauregard. 

When, however, McDowell attacked Beauregard 
on July 21, Johnston, with 6000 men, had succeeded 
in eluding Patterson. This included the command 
of T. J. Jackson. McDowell attacked vigorously, 
and at first all went well for the Union army ; but, 
just as the Confederates seemed doomed to defeat, 
Jackson advanced in a bayonet charge and the re- 
mainder of Johnston 's army arrived from the Valley 
of Virginia. This Union repulse was soon followed 
by a general retreat ; and the retreat, in turn, became 
a panic, especially on the part of the militia. The 
total losses were : Union, 2896 killed, wounded, and 
missing; Confederate, 1982.^^ 

The result of the battle of Bull Run, or Manassas, 
as it was called by .the Confederates, did not dis- 
courage the Federal Administration; it rather in- 
creased its determination to win; and President 
Lincoln promptly issued a call for 500,000 additional 

" To the teacher: The forces engaged and the total losses sus- 
tained in the tirst noted battle of the War of Secession and those 
in subsequent engagements seem veiy small in comparison with the 
numbers involved in the European " War of the Nations " ; there 
was no trench warfare in these early engagements, and the arms 
and other engines of war were not nearly so destructive and 
specialized. Nevertheless, these facts do not detract from the cour- 
age of the men engaged, the importance of the struggle, and the 
skill of the combatants in the use of the material at hand. 



MASON AND SLIDELL INCIDENT 



289 



volunteers. On the other hand, the victory created 
overconfidence in the Confederacy, and was followed 
by a period of inaction injurious to the discipline of 
troops. While Southern military leaders who had 
seen service in Mexico urged the importance of a 



p E :n- N- s ir^ -L- oV A •; ^ 

_^^^ Gettysburg 




BATTLE-FIELDS OF VIRGINIA 
MARYLAND- AND PENNSYL- 
VANIA. 



movement on Washington, the Confederate officials 
were not inclined to make any attempt at invasion of 
Federal territory. xrouwe with 

The Southern Confederacy now asked averted" ^'"^ 
for recognition by foreign powers as a fif|°JJ ^""^ 
regularly organized and acting government, ^'^^'^e^* 
Accordingly, in the autumn of 1861, James M. Mason 

19 



290 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

and John Slidell were appointed commissioners to 
Great Britain and France, respectively. 

The Confederate commissioners ran the Federal 
blockade. From Cuba, they took passage on the 
British mail steamer Trent. On November 8, 1861, 
this vessel was stopped by Captain Wilkes, of the 
United States ship San Jacinto^ and the Confederate 
commissioners were seized and taken to Boston as 
prisoners. Great Britain demanded an apology for 
the action of Captain Wilkes, together with the re- 
lease of Mason and Slidell. Although Congress had 
promptly approved of the proceeding, Lincoln ad- 
mitted that the seizure was wrong, and the commis- 
sioners were given up.^^ 

In the preceding paragraph mention was made of 
the blockade of the Southern coast. Not only was 
there a constant patrol of the entire Southern coast 
Federal to prcvcut supplics from reaching the Con- 
vs.^-Ki"^^^' " federacy and to prevent its products from 
Cotton" being sent abroad, but many points along 
the coast had been seized by Federal forces. This 
'^circle of iron^' around the Confederacy continually 
tightened and eventually reduced the South to help- 
lessness. 

On the other hand, the South had relied on the 
power of ^'King Cotton" to compel recognition 

" Mason had been a United States Senator from Virginia. 
Slidell was a Senator at the time of the secession of Louisiana. He 
was born and educated in New York, but, like the majority of 
Northern men who settled in the South, or Southeni men who 
settled in the North, he supported the State or section where he 
had gone to live. 



CAMPAIGNS OF 1862 291 

abroad. It was believed that if the cotton supply 
was held back from the great mills of England, the 
cry of thousands thrown out of work and the demands 
of the manufacturers would compel the British 
Government to take action. There was, indeed, great 
suffering in England on this account ; but the supply 
of cotton on hand at the beginning of the war was 
very large ; as it was used sparingly and sold at in- 
creased prices, the manufacturers weathered the 
storm, and the unemployed workingmen were per- 
suaded to endure their, ills, largely because it was 
represented to them that the North was fighting to 
put an end to slavery.^- 

Campaigns of 1862. — In 1862, the military leaders 
of the Federal forces laid down a definite plan of 
campaign, consisting of three distinct parts: (1) a 
second and better prepared invasion of Virginia with 
a view to the capture of Richmond; (2) the opening 
up of the Mississippi in order to cut the Confederacy 
in two; (3) the maintenance of a blockade of the 
coast line to prevent supplies from reaching the 
Confederacy. 

Of the three parts of the plan outlined above, that 
in the West involved a greater variety of effort. It 
included an attack by gunboats and war vessels pro- 
ceeding down the Mississippi from the north; an 

^^ Lincoln disclaimed any intention to interfere with slavery, 
if the Southern States would remain in or return to the Union; 
but this fact was lost sight of in the progress of the conflict (see 
p. 317). Thousands of copies of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" were in 
circulation among the workingmen of the English cotton millS; so 
that the influence of this book was more than national. It helped 
to prevent recognition of the Confederacy. 



292 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 



attack by a Federal fleet proceeding from the mouth 
of the Mississippi northward; and the active co- 
Beginning of operation of Federal armies in Kentucky 
in^tiTJ^westl ^1^^ Tennessee. As early as February, 
i«^2 ' 1862, General U. S. Grant and a well- 

equipped force under Commodore Foote captured 
Fort Henry, on the Tennessee Eiver. This success 
was followed by the capture of 
Fort Donelson, on the Cumber- 




BATTI^-FIELDS OF KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE 

land. The latter was an important capture, for mth 
the fort General Grant captured over 12,000 men, and 
thus achieved the first notable Federal victory of the 
war. From this time Kentucky and a large part; of 
Tennessee passed under the control of the Union 
forces, and the campaign served to bring to general 



BATTLE OF SHILOH 293 

notice a little-known soldier who had resigned from 
the United States army subsequent to service in the 
Mexican War. From now on Grant became a popular 
hero in whose ability the soldiers and the people had 
unusual confidence. 

The Confederates were forced to make their head- 
quarters as far south as northern Mississippi; but 
Greneral Albert Sydney Johnston, considered by 
many the ablest of the Confederate generals in the 
West, assembled an army at Corinth, Mississippi, 
and advanced upon Grant at Pittsburgh Landing, 
near Shiloh Church, Tennessee. Johnston Battle of 
attacked Grant 's army on April 6. At first IpruY?, 
the Confederates were victorious ; but as ^^" 
Johnston was pressing his advantage, he was mor- 
tally wounded. Thereafter, the Confederate attack 
was disorganized ; General Buell came up to the aid 
of Grant ; and, on the following day, the Confederates 
were compelled to retreat. The losses in this battle 
were more severe than in any that had preceded it, 
amounting to over 10,000 killed, wounded, and cap- 
tured in either army. General Halleck now took com- 
mand of the Western army, which was heavily rein- 
forced; the Confederate forces were put under the 
command of General Beauregard, who withdrew from 
Corinth farther south, leaving an important railway 
line in the possession of the Union army.^^ 

" The death of General Albert Sydney Johnson was in keeping' 
with the best traditions and ideals of the American soldier. He 
bled to death after ordering his staff snrgeon to attend to the 
wonnds of a Union soldier. He was the first of a number of noted 
Confederate commanders to be wounded or killed in the hour of 
victory. 



294 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

Prior to the fighting at Shiloh, General George H. 
Thomas had defeated the Confederates at the battle 
Battle of • ^^ ^^^ Springs, in Kentucky. This move- 
Miu Springs mQnt ^as part of an effort to enlist the 
Union sympathizers living in the mountainous dis- 
tricts of that section. Thomas, however, was not 
supported in his campaign and no 
special advantages came of the ^Ok 

victory. F ^ 

By the end of April, Commo- ^^^ *"• p 
dore Farragut had run past the fefcv^ i 

forts designed to protect the ap- \ ¥^^£^^ 1 
Capture of proach to Ncw Orleans ^"^^M^V^ 

New Orleans .^^^j |^^j Capturcd that ^HQ^^ 

Memphis city. General B. F. But- ^^^^^ 
ler was placed in command of the george henry thomas 

. -^ . Born Southampton Co., 

armv ot possession. 1^ arragut Virginia, juiy 31. isie. 

^ . . . . Graduate West Point, 

proceeded up the Mississippi, is-^o; served in Mexican 

■I ^ ^ ^ War under Taylor, 1846- 

From above, the Federal gunboats ;f -/.Ifj^^ IfnJ'was^'ap- 
descended the Mississippi and cap- ffi?d%t^ai"s'toru'n?err:l 
tured New Madrid and Island Sry'a? uTl^'i-^i^s, 
Number 10. On June 6, Memphis caned"''"^Ro^ck^"oPchick- 

1 T i ii T-1 T IP amauga"; crushed Confed- 

surrendered to the Federal lorces, erate army under Hood 

, -P 1 -r» J ^^ Nashville in last great 

thus leaviufir Vicksbursf and Port battle in the west, De- 

*=• '^ cember 1864. Died March 

Hudson as the last important Con- ^s. i87o. 
federate fortifications along the line of the Missis- 
sippi Eiver. 

In an effort to relieve the pressure on the Missis- 
Engagements sippi River, the Confederate generals 
and^'pfrTy-"^ Braxtou Bragg and E. Kirby Smith ad- 
viiie, Ky. vanced northward into Kentucky. The lat- 
ter won a victory at Richmond, in that State, and 



CLOSE OF CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST 295 

greatly alarmed the cities along the Ohio River. 
General Buell, however, fell upon Bragg at 
Perry ville, Kentucky, on x\pril 8, after which Bragg 
was forced to retire southward. A few days prior to 
this engagement,the Confederate generals Van Dorn 
and Price attacked the Federal forces at Corinth, but 
were defeated with heavy losses. 

Since the Confederate movements immediately to 
the east were, in the main, unsuccessful, General 
Grant led the Army of Tennessee through ^ ^ ^^^^^^^ 
Mississippi towards Vicksburg, ordering, ^^^^^^^^^ll^y 
at the same time, an army under General break up 

, T ill- i? Grant's plan 

W. T. Sherman to proceed along the hue or of campaign, 
the Mississippi River. Grant, however, 
now came into contact with the great Confed- 
erate cavalry leader of the West, General N. B. 
Forrest, who repeatedly broke up his plans by cut- 
ting off his communications. Grant was obliged 
to retreat, and Sherman was defeated at Chicka- 
saw Bayou by a Confederate force under Stephen 
D. Lee. 

On the last day of the year 1862, a battle occurred 
at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, between Federal and 
Confederate forces commanded respec- ^^^^^ ^^ 
tively by Generals Rosecrans and Bragg, campaign in 

*^ "^ 1 n 1 1 West, in 1862 

The battle was fiercely fought and was 
indecisive in results. It was renewed a few days 
later, and both armies were so badly shattered 
that neither took the aggressive until some time 
thereafter. 

In the East, a naval combat had taken place in 



296 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

Hampton Roads, wliicli was destined to change the 
character of all subsequent fighting on the sea. When 
the Federal forces had abandoned Norfolk in 1861, 
they had sunk the wooden frigate Merrimac. Captain 
John M. Brooke (see p. 265), in cooperation with 
_,. ,.--. other Confederate officers, raised the Mer- 

Tne "Vir- ^ 

ginia," the rimac and turned it into an ironclad vessel 

first ironclad 

vessel used by tlic usc of Ordinary iron plates and rail- 
battie with road rails. The Merrimac, renamed the 
fleet, M^r. 8, Virginia, steamed slowly out of Norfolk 
and attacked the Federal fleet near Fort- 
ress Monroe, where, with but ten guns, the clumsily 
constructed craft faced the fire of the Federal fleet 
commanding more than three hundred guns. In a 
short time the strange new vessel had destroyed the 
Cumberland and the Congress, and had driven ashore 
the Minnesota, the St. Lawrence, and the Hoanoke. 
The Virginia then returned to Norfolk to plan further 
attacks on the following day. 

While the Virginia was being constructed, John 
Ericsson, a native of Sweden, was working upon a 
small, although far better constructed, ironclad in 
Fight be- New York. This was equipped with two 
"vlrginia^" large g-uns in a revolving turret and was 
"Mon?t'or," called the Monitor. The Monitor challenged 
^"- ' the Virginia on the 9th of March and fought 

a fierce combat of several hours ' duration. Captain 
Worden, of the Monitor, was badly wounded, and the 
latter withdrew to shallow water, where the Virginia 
could not follow her. 

The Virginia, however, gained no advantage from 



BATTLE BETWEEN MONITOR AND VIRGINIA 297 

this combat. On the previous day its battering ram 
had been broken off in collision with the Cumberland, 
and at no time could it make a greater speed than six 
miles an hour. When the Virginia again appeared, 
some weeks later, the Monitor and other Federal 
vessels refused its challenge and retreated to safety 
under the guns of Fortress Monroe. The Virginia, 
therefore, after its first combat, was serviceable only 





Battle between the Monitor and the Virginia, the latter being the name under 
which the former Merrimac fought, March 9, 1862. This was the first fight between 
ironclads, and it sounded the knell of wooden men-of-war. 

The Virginia was planned by Captain John M. Brooke, the inventor of the 
deep-sea sounding apparatus used in laying the first Atlantic cable. _ The Monitor 
was constructed under the direction of John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer living in 
New York. Its revolving turret was the invention of an American, T. R. Timby. 

as a menace to the Federal armies on land. Later, 
when the Confederates abandoned Norfolk, they at- 
tempted to take the Virginia farther up the James. 
The effort failed and the former Merrimac was again 
sunk, to be raised no more. 



298 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

After the defeat of McDowell at the battle of Bull 
Run, General George B. McClellan had been called 
from his successful campaign in West Virginia to 
Mccjeiian's take Command of the Federal armies in the 
aJainst^Rich- East. From that time and for many months 
JTe^'isl^r" thereafter, McClellan drilled his men for 
S°s^tTnewaii ^^^^ Campaign against Richmond. In April, 
Jackson j^e prepared to advance upon the Confed- 
erate capital by way of the Chesapeake Bay and the 
_ York River peninsula. McClellan 

^^^^^ \ landed more than 100,000 men near 
JHH^kk ^ Fortress Monroe. At Yorktown, 
^ mt ^^ Hb ' ^^^^ scene of the surrender of Corn- 
W wallis, a force of about 11,000 Con- 
t. - ^m^ ^ federates under General Magruder 

\^gJB|^|L delayed the Federal commander 

^^HKJV^ until reinforcements arrived under 
^H^^^F^ General Joseph E. Johnston, who 
had taken command of the Confed- 

GEORGE B, MCCLELLAN . . _-^. . . 

Born Philadelphia, ^ratc armics m Virginia. 
nr'crdua'^eTwS McClellan forced the Confed- 
fn^Me xfcln Waj, 1846- eratcs to rctrcat, but at Williams- 

'47; major-general at out- , .-, •, r» i i • 

break of War of Secession; burg tllCrC WaS iie'dYJ hghtlllg OU 

attempted capture of Rich- r^ n i i 

mond in 1862; in command Mav 5, aud tlic cutire Coniedcrate 

at Battle of Antietam; can- *^ ' 

giffeVn^foTNew Jersey! ^miy -of about 63,000 contiiiued to 
1877. Died 1885. retreat until the Federal army was 

within sight of Richmond. At this point, however, 
the Confederates assumed the offensive and attacked 
McClellan vigorously in the battle of Fair Oaks, or 
Seven Pines, May 31 and Jane 1 . In this engagement 
General Johnston was seriously wounded and Robert 



McCLELLAN'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST RICHMOND 299 

E. Lee was put in command of the Confederate 
army.^^ 

McClellan had expected to receive reinforcements 
from an army of 40,000 men under McDowell near 
Manassas, but the rapid movements of ''Stonewall" 
Jackson in the Valley of Virginia overthrew his hopes 
of receiving assistance from that quarter.^^ 

Jackson was in command of 15,000 men with 
which, subsequent to a repulse at Kernstown, on 
March 23, he defeated a Federal army at McDowell 
and another at Front Royal. He followed this up 
by defeating parts of General Banks' army at 
Newtown, and again at Winchester the following day. 
Although Federal reinforcements compelled Jackson 
to retire, he defeated Fremont at Cross Keys on the 
8th of June, aad another army under Shields at Port 
Republic the next day. 

These successive Confederate victories in the 
Valley threatened the safety of Washington and pre- 
vented McDowell from sending reinforcements to 
McClellan. Within the space of a month, Jackson's 
small army had marched four hundred miles and 
fought a number of pitched battles and smaller en- 
gagements. Of even greater importance, the Con- 
federates had captured a quantity of military and 
other supplies that were badly needed. Jackson was 

" Johnston was wounded fourteen times durincc the War of 
Secession. General Gnstavus W. Smith succeeded Johnston for 
the second day of the battle, but he, in turn, was wounded. 

^^ General T. J. Jackson had become widely known as " Stone- 
wall " from his stand in the first battle of Bull Run, and this very 
able commander has g-one down in histoiy by that name. 



300 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

now free to march out of the Valley, and he joined 
Greneral Lee in the defence of Richmond. 

On June 26, Lee attacked McClellan at Mechanics- 
ville, forcing the latter to withdraw at the end of the 
day to Gaines' Mill and Cold Harbor, where, on the 
following day, the Confederates were again vic- 
torious. McClellan now withdrew southward in the 
direction of the James River. Lee followed closely, 
and there was continuous fighting until McClellan 
made his last stand at Malvern Hill, with his back to 
the James River. Here the Confederates were re- 
pulsed with heavy losses, but McClellan felt obliged 
to give up the hard-fought field and proceed down the 
river to the protection of the Federal fleet. 

This series of engagements has become known as 
the Seven Days' Battle, and the conduct of both 
armies showed that the training that they had under- 
gone since Bull Run had greatly improved their fight- 
ing ability in every way. McClellan, though prac- 
tically defeated by inferior numbers, had, neverthe- 
less, given a good account of himself in the fighting, 
and the Confederate loss was greater than that of 
the Union forces, the former amounting to 20,000 
men, the latter to 16,000. 

President Lincoln now ordered McClellan to take 
charge of the defences of Washington, and called 
Campaign General Halleck from the West to take chief 
i^n tummerof commaud. At the same time, the President 
^^" called for 300,000 more men. General John 

Pope also was ordered from the West to take imme- 
diate command of the army in Virginia, which was 
soon to become famous as the Armv of the Potomac. 




LEE'S FIRST NORTHWARD MOVEMENT 301 

As soon as possible after McClellan's withdrawal 
from the York Eiver peninsula, General Pope pre- 
pared plans to take the aggressive along the lines 
mapped out by McDowell before the first battle of 
Bull Run. He also called to his command the forces 
under Banks and Fremont from the Valley. When 
General Lee learned of Pope's - -. 

movements, he gave directions to 
Jackson to move against Pope be- 
fore the latter 's entire army could 
be brought together. Accordingly, 
Jackson, by rapid marches, at- 
tacked a part of Pope's army at 
Cedar Run on August 9 and de- 
feated it. On the 29th and 30th of 
August, Lee and Jackson united ,,,,,3 , (stonewal.) 
and defeated Pope on the former jackson 

1 jji /^iT PT-»n-r-» 1 Born Clarksburg, Vir- 

battle-neld 01 Bull Run, whereupon ginia (West Virginia) jan- 

^ ^ uary 21, 1824. Graduate 

Pope retreated to the defences of of west Point; served with 

^ distinction in War with 

WQGlTirKTfnn Mexico, 1846-47; re- 

VV aSningtOn. ceived title of " stone wall" 

The Army of Northern Vir- °J KnSaTw'o? nifaw; 

• • T , T . successes in Valley of Vir- 

gmia, as Lee's command came to ginia and with Army of 

, , 1 1 J T 1 ji • Northern Virginia; shot at 

be known, was depleted by this chanceiiorsviiie through 

. !; mistake of Confederate 

series oi battles and by sickness; troops. Died May io,i863. 
the soldiers were half clad, and many of them were 
barefooted. Nevertheless, Lee prepared to cross the 
Potomac in the hope that a successful in- Lee's erst 
vasion of the North would lead to the estab- Tovement; 
lishment of the Southern Confederacy. An*«etam, 
Orders were, therefore, given to Jackson sept. 17, 1862 
to drive the Federal troops out of the northern end of 
the Valley of Virginia. This Jackson accomplished 



302 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

by September 15th. After capturing upwards of 
15,000 men and valuable munitions of war at Harpers 
Ferry, lie marched immediately to join Lee in western 
Maryland. 

In the meantime, MoClellan had been restored to 
the command of the Federal army and was ready to 
move from Washington early in September.* Lee 
had crossed the Potomac, and advance guards of the 
hostile armies met in the mountains within sight of 
Frederick, Maryland. Here a copy of Lee 's plan of 
campaign was found and taken to McClellan. The 
latter at once took advantage of this information and 
attempted to overwhelm Lee while Jackson was en- 
gaged in the capture of Harpers Ferry. At South 
Mountain, however, the Confederate forces Avere able 
to hold McClellan 's army in check long enough to 
enable Lee to make partial preparations for battle. 
McClellan moved to attack, and, on September 17, 
there occurred at Sharpsburg, on Antietam Creek, 
one of the greatest conflicts of the war, in which the 
Confederate losses were almost twice as heavy as the 
Federal in proportion to the number of men engaged 
in the battle. The fighting of the entire day resulted 
in a drawn hattle. Lee held his ground and waited 
one day for further attack ; but scarcity of supplies 
and inferiority in numbers compelled him to retire 
across the Potomac. 

McClellan now proposed to make an effort to 
advance upon Richmond b}^ land; but his move- 
ments were very slow and he was again removed 
from command, this time in favor of General 
Burnside, who had ably commanded McClellan 's left 



THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 303 

wing at Antietam. On receiving the command, 
Burnside advanced rapidly to the Rappahannock 
opposite Fredericksburg, where Lee oc- campaign 
cupied a strongly fortified position. Here Bumside, 
the Federal army made a series of bril- December" 
liant charges, but they were completely re- ^^^^ 
pulsed with heavy losses. The battle of Fredericks- 
burg took place December 13, 
1862, and closed the campaign 
in the East for that year.^^ 

From the beginning of the 
war, President Lincoln had 
been urged by the abolitionists 
to issue a proclamation freeing 
the slaves. Lincoln had resisted 
this demand, not be- The Emanci- 
cause he was against fal'uon?"" 
emancipation, but be- J^"- ^' ^^" 




GEORGE GOKDON MEADE 

Born Cadiz, Spain^December caUSO llC had hcld tO Ms belief 
31,1815. Graduate West Point; 

served under Taylor in Mexican fliaf lip linrl Tin POTIcif ifnf 1 OTial 

War, 1846-'47; commissioned ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ COnSLlLULiOndl 

JsiTfiirefw^uling^fnToke; ^ight to take such a step. After 
'^.Id'^fMrs^tciZTsu^^^^^^^^^ the battle of Antietam, how- 

Hooker as commander of Armv of ^ i. n i • c* n 

the Potomac, June 28, 1863 ;c6m- CVCr, llC gaVC UOtlCO that 11 thC 
manded at Gettysburg; later ap- -, . ,^ . -, . , . . 

pointed major-general regular SCCCdlUg btatCS did UOt rctum 
armv. Died Philadelphia, No- 

vember, 1872. to thc Uniou by January 1, 

1863, he would issue a proclamation of emancipation 
offering freedom to the negroes within the Confeder- 
ate lines. He would, he said, do this as a part of his 

^^ Burnside had been successful in command of the " Coast 
Division " of the Army of the Potomac. He had, early in the 
year, occupied Roanoke Island, and captured Newbern and Fort 
Macon, in the Carolinas. 



304 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

' ' war powers. ' ' Tlie proclamation, therefore, did not 
offer emancipation to the ueg-roes in any State nnder 
Federal control. It was believed that if the negroes 
in the Southern States Avere offered their freedom 
through the aid of the Federal forces, they might rise 
in insurrection and thereby compel the men of the 
Confederacy to abandon the field of battle and return 
to their homes. It was believed, also, that if the 
Federal Grovernment took this step, the sympathies 
of the world would rest with the North as the cham- 
pion of freedom and the opponent of slavery. 

The Southern States showed no sign of yielding 
prior to January 1, 1863, and the Emancipation 
Proclamation was announced. The belief that it 
would embarrass the Confederate armies was mis- 
taken. The negroes, for the most part, seemed con- 
tent to remain as they were, even when the news of 
their promised freedom reached them. They con- 
tinued, by their labor in the fields, to support the 
Southern armies as best they could. Asa rule, they 
were as hearty in their loyalty to the South as any 
of the non-combatants left at home. The kindly 
relations which existed between master and slave 
were a tribute to the character of both races. The 
world had not seen such relations before, and it will 
not see them again; for the world has now properly 
advanced beyond the age of slavery in any form, how- 
ever mild. The second belief with regard to the 
Emancipation Proclamation held good. It served 
the important purpose of persuading the masses of 
the British people, and especially the workingmen of 
the great Lancashire cotton mills, that the triumph of 
the Union cause would put an end to slavery. 



LEE'S SECOND NORTHWARD MOVEMENT 305 

Campaigns of 1853. — After the failure of General 
Burnside at Fredericksburg, he was superseded by 
General Joseph E. Hooker, At Chancellorsville the 
opposing' armies met in battle during the first three 
days of May. The Confederates were victorious, but 
their victory cost them the services of ''Stonewall" 
Jackson. Jackson fell, mortally wounded by the fire 
of his own men, who, in the dusk of the evening of 
May 2, mistook him and those with him for Federal 
troops. Since Lee regarded Jackson as his right- 
hand man, the loss of this leader was equivalent to a 
defeat.^' 

Lee now began preparations for a second north- 
ward movement with a view to gaining control of 
part of Pennsylvania, and of securing much-needed 
supplies both in food and clothing. Opposing him 
was General Hooker, who, late in June, was super- 
seded by General George Gordon Meade. The 
hostile armies met somewhat unexpectedly at Gettys- 
burg, in southern Pennsylvania, where a force of 
(Confederates had gone in quest of shoes 

_ Lee's second 

and clothing. On July 1 the Confederate northward 
columns attacked the Federal cavalry and ' Gettysburg, 
infantry at Gettysburg. At first the Con- " ^ " ' 
federates w^ere driven back, but in the latter part of 
the afternoon they were reinforced, and the Federal 
troops were in turn defeated. Both armies began to 
fortify positions on opposing ridges in preparation 
for a continuance of the battle the following day. 

On July 2, General Lee determined to force the 
fighting and take the offensive. His- orders to attack 

'' Jackson died on May 10, 1S63. 
20 



306 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 



early in the morning-, however, were not carried out 
by General Longstreet. Happily for Federal suc- 
cess, this delay by Longstreet gave time for the ener- 
getic Sedgwick, by forced marches, to arrive with 
fresh troops. When the Confederates attacked, they 
were but partly successful in gaining the ground for 
which they contended. On the renewal of the battle 




BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (by Rothermel) 

This represents the high tide of the Confederate invasion of the North. In the 
charge of Pickett and Pettigrew, the Confederates, for a few minutes, held the centre 
of the Federal line, but were forced back on the last day of the three days' fight, July 
3, 1S63. 

the following day, Longstreet again delayed the at- 
tack until the afternoon, by which time GeneralMeade 
had greatly strengthened his line of battle and had 
been heavily reinforced. Consequently, the Union 
troops held these lines in face of one of the fiercest 
charges of the war, led by Generals Pickett and 
Pettigrew.^^ 

^^ In the glamour of the hrilUaiit Confederate charge of Pickett 
and Pettigrew, the decisive action of General John Sedgwick is 
often overlooked. His forced march to the field of battle is worthj^ 
of special mention, Sedgwick was always at the forefront of the 
fighting nntil he fell in battle near Spottsylvania Couii: House, 



MAP OF THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



307 



-'GREEN I 




MAP OF THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



As at Antietam, Lee awaited an attack during the 
whole of the day after the conflict. The Union army 

May 9, 1864. The Confederate cavalry commander, J. E. B. 
Stuart, had ridden around the Federal army, arriving- at Gettys- 
burg the second day" of the battle. Stuart was mortally wounded 
two days after the death of Sedg-wick in the same series of battles. 



308 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 



did not take the aggressive, and Lee was obliged to 
withdraw from the field on the night of July 4. In 
round numbers, the Union losses were 23,000 men, 
and the Confederate over 20,000. The entire forces 
of either side were: Confederate, 62,000 to 75,000; 
Federal, 90,000 to 100,000. Although the Federal 
armies followed slowly the retreating forces, there 
was no further fighting of consequence in the East 
during the remainder of 1863. 




Gun- and mortar-boats attacking Confederate fortifications on the Mississippi 
River. The Mississippi passed under Federal control shortly after the fall of Vicks- 
burg in 1863. 

After Gettysburg, Lee felt compelled to deplete 

his own ranks in the Army of Northern Virginia in 

an effort to repel the aggressive movements of the 

Federal forces in the "West. The same day 

Capture of 

vicksburg, on which Lee was retiring from the field of 
Confederacy Gettysburg, the stronghold of Vicksburg 
surrendered to the land and naval forces 
under General Grant and Admiral Porter. A few 
days later, the Mississippi was wholly in the hands 



BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA 309 

of the Federal forces, and the Confederacy was 
cut in two. 

In the West, it seemed for a while that the hope of 
the Confederacy lay in the natural military genius of 
the Confederate cavalry leader, General N. 'B. 
Forrest. This leader, unlike the great majority of 
the more successful commanders on either side, had 
had no previous military training; 
but he possessed natural abilities 
of a very high order, and his 
activity and daring made „ 

•^ ^ Movements 

the movements of the of n. b. 

T^ T T . Forrest 

r ederal armies uncer- 
tain. From the time of his appoint- 
ment to a Confederate command to 
the end of the war, he succeeded in 
capturing a total of over 30,000 

Tennessee, July 13, 1821. -nviaonoT'C! 

Had no military training; pi lo'J-lltil o. 

entered Confederate service T„ Q^^-^-l-^-.T^'U^-r, ■D^(-,^^-r.r>-.->f>i 

as private; showed excep- -LH beptcmber, Kosecraus 

tional talent for war and j i • i? ^^^ ± 

rose to lieutenant-general; tOOK pOSSCSSlOU 01 L liat- Battle of 

as such was rated by Grant , -i i i i Chicka- 

and Sherman as their most taUOOSfa aud SCt OUt tO 




KATHAN B. FORREST 

Born Bedford County, 



formidable foe in the West 



gci diiLi oct yjuL Lw mauga, Sept. 



lormmaDieioein tne west; io on io<:j 

after the war, became leader DUrSUe (reneral ADYRSCSC I ' 

of Ku Klux Klan, 1867- ^ ^* ' 

'69. Died 1877. |)ut the latter, reinforced by Long- 

street, attacked Eosecrans at Chickamauga on the 
19th and 20th of September. The Federal right wing 
was shattered and the army was saved from destruc- 
tion by the determined stand of General George H. 
Thomas, who became known thereafter as the ''Rock 
of Chickamauga. ' ' The total losses in this two days ' 
battle were very heavy. 

After Chickamauga, Eosecrans was superseded 
by Thomas, who was given the command of the Army 



310 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

of the Cumberland, while General William T. 

Sherman was made commander of the Army of the 

, Tennessee, both bein^- in one military 

Battles of ' "^^ ♦^ 

Lookout department under General Grant. On 

Mountain ^ 

and November 24, Bragg was defeated. at Look- 

Ridge, Nov. out ^fountain ; and, on the following day, 

Thomas and Sherman attacked the Con- 
federates at Missionary Eidge. This engagement 
caused Bragg to retreat into Georgia, and Long- 
street to retreat before the forces of Burnside and 
Sherman. 

The Union armies had now driven a wedge into 
the heart of the Confederacy from the Middle West. 
Grant was called to take command of the armies in 

the East, and Sherman, with a strong: force, 

Sherman's ' ' . , 

march to the planned to march to the southeast into the 
States on the Atlantic seaboard. By the 
skilful use of superior numbers in a series of well- 
executed flanking movements, he compelled General 
eJoseph E. Johnston to retire from one position to 
another as far as Atlanta. At this place, General 
Johnston was replaced by General John B. Hood. 
Hood, however, w^as unable to stop Sherman's ad- 
vance, and Atlanta fell into the hands of the Federal 
forces. Hood moved northward, hoping to draw 
Sherman after him. Sherman, however, did not fol- 
low; for he felt confident that General Thomas Avould 
be able to cope with Hood in Tennessee. At Franklin, 
on November 30, Hood encountered General Schofield 
in a stubborn engagement. Thomas, however, joined 
Schofield and completely shattered the Confederate 
army at Nashville on December 15 and 16. 



SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA 311 

Except for a small Confederate force under Gen- 
eral Joseph E. Wlieeler, Sherman was now unopposed 
in his march to the sea. He reached Savannah 
December 21, from which point he prepared to march 
northward in an effort to crush Lee between his 
forces and those under Grant. He had previously 
determined to make the lower South feel most 
severely the hand of war, and he made no effort to 
restrain his soldiers from destroying property of all 




Battle of Chickamauga, near the Georgia-Tennessee line. Here Gen. George 
H. Thomas saved the Union Army from entire disaster or annihilation and earned 
the title of the "Rock of Chickamauga." 

kinds. He burned much of Atlanta, and his estimate 
of the damage done in the State of Georgia alone 
amounted to about $100,000,000. Food supplies be- 
came scarcer and scarcer in the Confederacy ; and the 
people and the Confederate soldiers were, at times, 
obliged to subsist on parched corn. 

Final Campaigns of the War, i864-'65. — In Virginia, 
Grant had summoned from the West his cavalry 



312 



PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 



leader, General Philip H. Sheridan. One army, 
under General Sigel, was sent into the Valley of 
Grant's Virginia to break Lee's communication 
ZZailT ^^^i^^ t^^^^ section, while General B. F. Butler 
^^^ attempted to advance from Fortress Mon- 

roe. Grant himself marched southward with an army 
of 120,000 men to attack Lee, who was south of the 
Eapidan River. He 
was convinced that Lee 
could get no further 
reinforcements, a n d 
that it remained for 
him to crush the 




SHERMAN S MARCH, ATLANTA TO RALEIGH 

Army of Northern Virginia by cutting off its supplies 
and by force of superior numbers. On May 5 and 6 
there occurred fierce fighting in the ''Wilderness," 
not far from Fredericksburg. Here the Federal 
losses amounted to 18,000 men, and the army seemed 
in danger of serious defeat; but a successful Con- 
federate charge was broken up through the wounding 
of General Longstreet, causing a delay which enabled 



EARLY'S NORTHWARD MOVEMENT 313 

Grant to re-form his forces. A few days later, near 
Spottsylvania Court House, Grant made a second 
effort to pass around Lee's right wing. Three days 
of fighting resulted, in which the Federal losses were 
especially heavy.^^ 

After the battle of Spottsylvania Court House, 
Grant manoeuvred still farther to the South in the 
effort to turn the Confederate 
right ; but, at Cold Harbor, not far 
from Richmond, he was again re- 
pulsed by Lee with great losses in 
killed, v/ounded, and captured. 

The Confederate and Federal 
forces were now in a position 
somewhat similar to that occupied 
by them in 1862, and Lee 




PHILIP H. SHERIDAN 

Born Albany, New 
York, March 6, 1831 



Early's 

sent orders to General northward 

movement. 



G^aduatSwest Point: J^bal A. Eaxly to make summer of 
1853; served with distinc- i j.u- ^ ' U-^ ^^^^ 

tion in the West and the a sharp attacK m tuc 

East throughout the War of xr n c tt* • • i i n j_ 

Secession; appointed major- Valley 01 Virginia aud to thrcatcu 

general. Commander Fifth -ji ii i n 

MiUtary District in the W ashlllfftOU, Wltll tllC llOpC 01 CaUS- 
South durmg Reconstruc- 

tion. Died 1888. \j^g Qraut to witlidraw some of his 

forces, as McClellan had done two years .before. 
Early was successful in defeating the Federal forces 
in the Valley; after which he entered Pennsylvania 
as far as Chambersburg and, contrary to the course 
pursued by Lee in the Gettysburg campaign, began 
the destruction of property in retaliation for the 
ravages of some of the Federal commanders. He 
defeated, also. General Lew Wallace at the Monocacy 

'' See footnote, p. 307. 



314 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

Eiver near Frederick, and threatened the fortifica- 
tions at Washington. 

General Grant, however, was not to be turned 
from his purpose of overwhehning Lee. He sent 
^, ., General Sheridan with a stron^: army to 

Sheridan ^ c5 j 

defeats drive the Confederates out of the Valley of 

Early . "^ 

in Valley of Virginia and further to lay waste that part 
autumn of of the couutrv tlirough the destruction of 
food supplies of every description. Sheri- 
dan defeated Early near Winchester and again at 
Fisher 's Hill two days later. 

In the meantime General Grant had determined 
to cross the James and approach Richmond from the 
south by way of Petersburg. On July 30, a great 
mine was exploded under the Confederate fortifica- 
tions and the Federal troops attempted to 
Grant's cam- break throui>-h the Confederate lines. They 

paign of 1864 " . 

were repulsed, however, with many losses ; 
and the ^'Battle of the Crater" closed the active 
fighting for the year. Grant had been unsuccessful 
in attacking Lee by frontal or by flanking movements, 
and he now determined to erect fortifications and 
overthrow the Confederate army by means of siege 
operations. 

This decision on the part of the Federal com- 
mander proved to be a wise one. The Confederacy 
had been cut in two along the line of the Mississippi, 
and the Eastern remnant had itself been cut in two 
by Sherman's march to the sea. The Confederate 
soldier had been ill-clad and ill-fed from almost the 
beginning, and his condition was continually getting 
worse. At no time in the history of the country did 



SUFFERING OF THE CONFEDERATES 



315 



American troops suffer greater hardships and priva- 
tions than those the Confederates were called upon 
to endure in the trenches around Peters- ^ „ . 

Suffering of 

bur 2' during' the winter of 1864- '65. It is the confed- 
said that here began the system of entrench- line broken 
ments which is, perhaps, the principal Forks, 
feature of modern warfare. For the first ^^' ' 
time in history, a large body of men were detailed by 
the Confederates to cut wire entanglements before 

F ■ I 




The sinlcing of the Alabama by the Kearsarge, June 19, 1864. Much of the 
Kearsarge was skilfully covered by chain armor, concealed under wooden planking. 
The Alabama was constructed at Liverpool in 1862, and was commanded by Admiral 
Raphael Semmes. One of her officers was the uncle of Theodore Roosevelt, who 
was, at this time, six years old. 

the attacking troops could hope for success. This 
was done on the night of March 25, when General 
John B. Gordon, more to relieve the distress of his 
troops than in the hope of a great victory, made a 
night attack upon Fort Stedman, within the Federal 
lines. The fort was captured, but the Confederates 
were driven back with severe losses ; and, on the 29th 



316 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

of March, Slieridan broke through Lee's line of de- 
fence in the battle of Five Forks. 

On the 2d of April, Petersburg and Richmond 
were evacuated by the Confederates and fell into the 
hands of the Federal troops. Lee was obliged to re- 
treat and attempt to join Johnston in North Carolina. 
His soldiers, however, 
were without food, 
and he was unable to 
^^^ proceed. The 

surrenders at delaV, COUSC- 
Appomattox ' ' 

Court House, quentlv, 2:ave 

April 9, 1865 ^ . ? o 

an opportu- 
nity for Grant t o 
throw a large force 
across his path. The 
Army of Northern 
Virginia had now 
been reduced t o a robert edward lee 

f o "VX7 flnnnaanrl linlf ^°™ Westmoreland County. Virginia, 

lew inOUbdna ndil- January 19, 1807. Graduate West Point; 

n •11 ^„ ^^^ served with especial distinction under Scott in 

lamiSneCl men, many war with Mexico, 1S47; superintendent West 

n ^ J -j Point, 1852-'58; declined command of Fed- 

01 WnOm were too WeaK eral Army after secession of Virginia; entered 

j^r»iL r\ A 'irk service of his State; appointed, 1862, to com- 

tO tiSfht. On April 9, mand of Army of Northern Virginia; elected 

^ president of Washington College, Lexington,- 

therefore. General Lee Virginia. Died October 12, isro. 
decided that further resistance would involve a use- 
less sacrifice of human lives, and on that day he met 
General Grant at Appomattox Court House, where 
terms of surrender were agreed upon. 

This action of Lee was in keeping with his high 
character ; and Grant, on his part, allowed the Con- 
federates liberal terms of surrender. Officers and 
men were paroled and given permission not only to go 




THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT 317 

home, but to take with them their side arms and 
horses. The joy of the Federal army was great ; but 
Grant was considerate of the feelings of the van- 
quished and did not permit his men to show their 
triumph in the face of defeated fellow-Americans. 

The war was now practically ended. The ques- 
tion of secession had been at last settled. The Fed- 
eral Republic had become a consolidated cessation of 
Nation. On April 26, Johnston surrendered hostilities 
to Sherman near Raleigh, N. C; and other Confed- 
erate troops in the Southwest surrendered shortly 
thereafter. Jefferson Davis was captured in Georgia 
on May 11, and was held prisoner at Fortress Monroe 
two years thereafter until released on parole. 

President Lincoln's Re-election and Death ; Adminis- 
tration of Andrew Johnson. — In 1861, President Lincoln 
had been renominated by the Republican party, and 
Andrew Johnson was chosen as candidate Lincoln re- 
for Vice-President. Johnson had been a elected, i864 
Union Democrat from Tennessee, then under Federal 
control. The Democrats nominated General George. 
B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio. 
Lincoln and Johnson were elected by an overwhelm- 
ing majority. 

It will be remembered that the slaves in the Union, 
or loyal, States were not included in the 
terms of the Emancipation Proclamation Thirteenth 

Amendment 

(p. 304) ; SO, early m 1865, Congress prohibits 
passed an amendment to the Constitution 
prohibiting slavery ''within the United States, or 
any place subject to their jurisdiction. " This amend- 
ment was submitted to the States ; and after ratifica- 



318 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

tion by three-fourths of the State legislatures, became 
a law in December of the same year. 

Five clays after the surrender of Lee, the whole 
country was horrified by the assassination of Presi- 
dent Lincoln in Ford's Theatre, in Washington. It 
Assassina- was tlic iusaue deed of an actor, who had 
den" Lincoln^ bceu crazcd by the Avar and events con- 
Aprii 14, 1865' j^ectcd with it. The President died early 
the next morning, and the act proved a real calamity 
to the Southern people ; for Lincoln had counseled 
the same liberality in the treatment of the war-torn 
South that Grant had already shown at Appomattox. 

Now, however, in the passion of the moment, the 
deed was represented as inspired by sympathizers 
with the Confederacy. The radical faction, which 
Lincoln had, in large measure, held in check, got con- 
Effect of ^^-^^ ^^ ^ ^ongress. This faction called loudly 
Lincoln's for a pollcy of vengeance, and a long period 
reconstruc- of opprcssiou and misgovernment folloAved 
before the moderate i^eople of the North, 
rei^resenting the majority of the people of that sec- 
tion, could prevail and give time to the Southern 
people to recover from the effects of the war and 
adapt themselves to new conditions. 

Upon the death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson 
became President. The latter wished to carry out 
Lincoln's policies with regard to the South.^^ The 

^ On one i)oi]it, liowever, Johnson differed with the former 
President. Lincohi had said : " I hope there will be no persecu- 
tion, no bloody Avork after this war is over." Johnson, on the 
contrary, at first counseled severe measures against the Confeder- 
ate leaders. 



ANDREW JOHNSON AND RECONSTRUCTION 319 

Radical wing of the Republican party, led by Repre- 
sentative Thaddens Stevens, was now the loudest in 
praise of the dead President and the first , 

^ ... Andrew 

to attack his policies. In 1866, Congress Johnson and 
passed a Civil Rights Bill granting full tion; Four- 
citizenship to the free negroes. This bill Amendment, 
went into effect at once and afterwards 
(1868) became the Fourteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution. The bill provided also for the dis- 
franchisement of the great ma- 
jority of the white voters through 
denying the suffrage to any one 
who had ''engaged in insurrec- 
tion or rebellion" against the 
United States.^i 

The Southern States, with the 
exception of Tennessee, refused to 
ratify the Civil Rights Bill as an 
amendment to the Constitution; 
Congress, therefore, declared the ^SL^M^ot^d^trT^nnLsee 
Southern States out of the Union Andrew Tackson?''unk 
and divided the South into Z%Za^te::,7o}^^^^^^^ 

n J •!' J /i'Tj'ji* nessee; elected Vice-Presi- 

nve great military 'districts." dent, i864; succeeded to 

,^, T i • ; 1 T T Presidency on death of Lin- 

These districts were placed under coin, isos; endeavored to 

carry ou t Lincoln's policies, 

the supreme authority of officers but failed. Diedi875. 
of the United States Army while Reconstruction went 
on under the terms imposed by Congress. In this 

^^ To the teacher : The word " Rebellion " as applied to the 
War of Secession was, for some time, the official term employed 
by the United States Government. Later, owing to the recogni- 
tion of the historical basis for the contentions of those engaged in 
the support of secession, the tenn was abandoned. 




ANDREW JOHNSON 

Born Raleigh, North 



320 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

period much of the direction of government was in 
the control of unprincipled adventurers from the 
North, who came to be known as '' carpet-baggers. ''2- 
These adventurers were aided by white men in the 
South called ''scalawags." In 1865 a Freedmen's 
Bureau was organized to help the newly emancipated 
negro, to see that he received fair returns for his 
labor, and to give him abandoned lands. These pur- 
poses were good, but politicians abused the powers 
of the Bureau to dispossess the whites and to stir up 
friction between the races. 

In February, 1869, Congress proposed the 

Fifteenth Amendment, declaring that the "right of 

citizens of the United States to vote shall 

Fifteenth . - -, ^ 

Amendment, not bo dcuied or abridged ... on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of 
servitude." This amendment Avas subsequently 
ratified by the States and became law. 

For some time, with respect to reconstruction 
legislation, President Johnson had been in opposition 
to the Radical majority in Congress. This majority 
attempted to limit the influence of the President by 
passing the "Tenure of Office Act." This act for- 
bade the President to remove a government official 
without the consent of the Senate. The President 

^^ These people were, of course, not at all representatiA^e of 
the North. For a while only did they sncceed in misrepresenting 
the Southern people in the North and in giving a false impression 
of Northern people at the South. " They came south with a 
cai-pet-bag only," said one Northern observer, and frequently 
" departed with their ill-gotten thousands or millions, according 
to their success in bleeding the countiy they lived upon." 



MEXICO AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 321 

believed that this act was unconstitutional, and there- 
after dismissed Secretary of War Stanton, who had 
been a powerful representative of the Radical 
element in the Cabinet. 

In February, 1868, the House of Representatives 
accused the President of ^4iigh crimes and misde- 
meanors." This was called "impeachment" pro- 
ceedings ; and the trial, according to the Trial of 
terms of the Constitution (Article II, Sec- fohnlonf 
tion 4; and Article I, Section 3), took place ^^^^ 
in the Senate. A two-thirds vote was necessary for 
conviction. After two months of argument, the vote 
resulted 35 to 19 for conviction of the President. One 
more vote for conviction would have removed the 
President from office. 

In the midst of the War of Secession, England, 
Spain, and France sent an armed force into Mexico 
to collect debts due those countries. England and 
Spain withdrew; but Napoleon III, Emperor of 
France, thought he saw a good opportunity ^^^^^^ 
to make Archduke Maximilian of Austria Maximilian. 

and the 

Emperor of Mexico. By the aid of Monroe 
French troops, Maximilian gained control 
in Mexico; but as soon as the United States was 
free from civil strife, the Monroe Doctrine was re- 
asserted with vigor, and it was proposed that a com- 
bined force of Federal and Confederate veterans 
should be sent to fight side by side ''for American 
rights ' ' against European aggression. In the face of 
this threat of war by the United States, and because 
of an impending conflict in Europe, Napoleon with- 
21 



322 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

drew his troops. Maximilian was defeated and 
executed ; Mexico was saved for the Mexicans ; and 
the Monroe Doctrine was vindicated. 

During" Johnson's administration Eussia offered 
Alaska to the United States. A treaty was accord- 
ingly agreed upon by which the United States pur- 
purchase of chascd that vast and then almost unex- 
Aiaska, 1867 plored territory for $7,200,000. The United 
States thus acquired 577,000 additional square miles 
in ''a new Northwest,'' representing an area almost 
equal in extent to that of the United States east of the 
Mississippi. 

In 1868, the Republicans nominated General 
Ulysses S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax as their candi- 
Generai u. s. datcs f or President and Vice-President, 
president?^^ '^^^^ Dcmocrats nominated Horatio Sey- 
^8^8 mour, of New York, and Francis P. 'Blair, 

of Missouri. General Grant thus became the first 
of a series of Presidential candidates who had seen 
service in the War of Secession. Grant and Colfax 
were elected by a large majority. 

Administrations of General Grant. — It is difficult to 
describe the terrible conditions that existed in the 
South during the last years of Johnson's administra- 
tion and much of the period under Grant. 

Reconstruc- ^ 

tion policies A Combination of ^ ' carpet-baggers, " " scal- 
controi of awags, " and negroes was in control of 
eiement'in the government in several States. The 
Congress Frccdmeu's Bureau, intended to aid the 
negroes, became a means for corrupting them. A 
^^ Loyal Leagne" of negroes was created, the pur- 
pose of which was to keep the control of the govern- 



RECONSTRUCTION POLICIES 



323 



ment in the hands of the baser elements of both races. 
Throughout the four years of war there had been 
little violence and almost no crimes committed by 
neg-roes in any part of the South. They had taken 
care of the small farms and large plantations of the 
whites, and the relations between ""^^ 

the races were most friendly.^"^ 
Under the new conditions of free- 
dom, every temptation was sud- 
denly thrown into the way of the 
negro. Crimes of all kinds were 
committed; and the criminals, if 
caught, were frequently permitted 
to go unpunished. The better class 
of whites had little part in the 
government ; so that they and the 
law-abiding negroes could get no 
redress from courts, judges, or 
jurors. The State legislatures pre- 
sented scenes of riot and extrava- 
gance that had never been seen be- 
fore in a civilized country. Thou- 
sands of negroes left the farms un- 
tilled and crowded into the villages 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 

Born Point Pleasant, 
Ohio, April 27, 1822. Was 
graduated at West Point, 
1843; served with dis- 
tinction in war with Mexico; 
resigned from army and 
lived near St. Louis, Mis- 
souri; as brigadier-general 
in War of Secession, won 
notable successes in the 
West; as lieutenant-gen- 
eral, 1864, prosecuted cam- 
paign against Lee until lat- 
ter surrendered, April 9, 
1865; President, 1869- 
'77. Died, Mt. McGregor, 
New York, July 23, 1885. 

and cities of the 



^ " History has no parallel to the faith kept by the negro in 
the South during the war. Often five hundred iiegToes to a single 
white man, and yet through these dusky throngs the women and 
children walked in safety, and the unprotected homes rested in 
peace. ... I rejoice that when freedom came to him after 
years of waiting, it was all the sweeter because the black hands 
from which the shackles fell were stainless of a single crime against 
the helpless ones confided to his care." — From an address by Henry 
W. Grady, of Atlanta and New York. 



324 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

South, seeking support from the Federal soldiers or 
from the Freedmen's Bureau. Those who had sav- 
ings were swindled out of them by the promise of 
' ' forty acres and a mule ' ' and other aids to be given 
to them by the United States Government. 

During these times of disorder and corruption the 

Southern whites in many States organized secret 

societies, which came to be known collectively as the 

^ ^ Ku Klux Klan. ' ' The Klan went about in disguises 

and sought to terrify the evil element in 

The Ku Klux ^ "^ 

Klan, control. As a rule, the Klan gathered at 

night as quiet, white-sheeted, ghostlike, but 
determined men. They warned or punished only the 
criminal or vicious classes. Nevertheless, the Klan 
was outside the law, and United States courts took 
measures to suppress it. In 1869, however, the Klan 
disbanded of its own accord.^-^ 

In 1872, the Republicans again nominated General 

Grant for President. Those Republicans, however, 

who were dissatisfied with the conduct of 

President • • i oi i 

Grant re- Reconstructiou lu the South nominated 
Horace Greeley, of New York. The Demo- 
crats endorsed Greeley; but Grant was elected by a 
large majority. Greeley died before the electoral 
votes were cast. 

The period following the War of Secession Avas 
a period of great corruption in public office. General 
Grant's administration was not unlike that of Andrew 

"^ The organized " Klan " existed from 1867 to 1869. It was 
composed of the better class of white citizens. After it disbanded, 
irresponsible bodias adopted its disgnises and sometimes committed 
acts of violence and revenge. 



FIRE AND FINANCIAL LOSSES 325 

Jackson in that both Presidents were misled by de- 
signing men. Under Grant, however, the opportuni- 
ties for corruption were greater; and, for pouticai 
that reason, millions were misspent and corruption 
thousands of offices were *' bought and sold^' where 
the figures in the days of Jackson had been much 
smaller. Unusual efforts were made to develop the 
West. Many of the laws passed for this purpose 
were excellent ; but scandals crept in, especially in the 
matter of funds appropriated for building transcon^ 
tinental railway systems. 

In 1871 a great fire destroyed buildings over an 
area of 2000 acres in C'hicago. Boston was visited by 
a destructive fire the following year. The losses in 
these fires amounted to a quarter of a billion dollars. 
In 1873 there were many failures of banks Losses by 
and business houses of all kinds. A finan- gnandai^^ 
cial panic followed; and, after the era of ^^^^"^^ 
great spending and expansion, there came several 
years of "hard times'' and suffering among the 
poor and the unemployed.^-^ In 1875, Congress be- 
gan to make provision for the redemption in coin 
of the notes or "greenbacks" issued in large 
quantities during and after the War of Secession. 
This redemption was carried into effect a few years 
later, and the "greenback" rose to its par value. 

During the early part of this period the western 
Indians had been badly treated by corrupt govern- 

^^ This panic followed on the heels of others in 1867 and 1869. 
In 1869 and in 1873, the crisis occurred on Friday, — hence the 
temi " Black Friday/' familiarly used for many years thereafter. 



326 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

ment agents and by white adventurers. Several In- 
dian uprisings took place. The Apaches of Arizona 
Indian ^'^^^^ ^^ 1871, and the Modoc Indians of the 

uprisings Pacific coast in 1873. These were put down 
without serious loss of life ; but, in 1876, the Sioux 
Indians surrounded and annihilated a body of United 
States troops led by General Custer. The Sioux 
leader, Sitting Bull, fled to Canada, but died in the 
United States many years later. 

In 1876 there was a strong movement led by the 
supporters of President Grant to renominate him for 
a third term. This movement, however, was de- 
feated, and the Republicans nominated Rutherford 
Disputed B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President. The 
Sorif"^ Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, of 
1876 New York. After the election, disputes 

arose as to the electoral votes of South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana, together with one electoral 
vote from Oregon. The Southern States were still 
under the control of ^'carpet-bag" governments. 
These governments threw out Democratic majorities 
on the ground that negroes had been intimidated at 
the polls. Certificates of election were therefore 
given to Republican electors in the place of Demo- 
cratic ones. A serious crisis had arisen, and there 
was great excitement throughout the country. Con- 
gress appointed a commission to pass upon the dis- 
puted votes. This commission was composed of 
five members from the House, five from the Senate, 
and five Justices of the Supreme Court. Eight were 
Republicans and seven were Democrats, and the com- 
mission, by an eight-to-seven majority, decided, 



THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL SUBMARINE 327 

March 2, 1877, to award all the disputed votes to 
Hayes, who was, therefore, elected by a majority of 
one vote over Tilden. No disorder followed, and the 
country abided quietly by the decision of the 
Commission. 

Points of Interest; Suggestions for Reading or Discussion 

There were but few naval combats on the ocean during the 

War of Secession. The Federal fleet was engaged in blockading the 

coast line of the Confederacy. This blockade sapped the streno-th 

of the South and shut off all supplies from a country which, at that 

time, was unable to supply itself from within. The Confederate 

States managed to construct a few vessels, among 

them the first ironclad used in war (p. 296), also the '^^^ ^^^* 

-, successful 

first submanne craft that succeeded ni torpedoing submarine 

a hostile warship (see, also, p. 152). This sub- 
marine, the liunley, proved a " death-trap " for successive crews 
on three trial trips. In each case it settled on the bottom; 
but the vessel was raised and new volunteers offered themselves. 
Finally, in Charleston harbor, it succeeded in destroying the 
United States warship Housaionic and, with its victim, sank 
for the last time.^^ 



^®In view of the important part played by submarines in 
modern warfare, the following description of the Ilunley is of 
especial interest : '^ After two attempts, the builders constructed, 
largely out of a cylindrical boiler which happened to be on hand, 
a boat thirty feet long, four feet wide, and five ffeet deep — a huge 
iron coffin in looks, a huge iron coffin in her brief career to fully 
thirty-two brave men, and withal one of the most remarkable craft 
that ever rode the waters. Her power was that of eight men who 
turned the shaft of an ordinary propeller, in default of storage 
batteries and gasoline motors. There were ballast-tanks to take in 
sea-water, and a force-pump to eject it. She submerged by taking 
in water and by depressing external fins like those of a fish, and 
traveled veiy slowly when submerged, the men working in total 
darkness save for the light of a single candle, and so crowded 
together that no one could leave his seat or his position — the two 
navigators standing with tlieir heads in the two hatchways by 
which the boat was entered and left." — Oswald Garrison Villard, 
in Harper's Monthly, June, 1916. 



328 PERIOD OF DIVISION AND REUNION 

The Confederate Commissioners, following the example of 
John Paul Jones, secured and equipped a few vessels in foreign 
countries. The most famous of these was the Alabama, under the 
command of Captain (later Rear-Admiral) Raphael 
between the Semmes. This very able commander defeated the 
"Alabama" United States cruiser Hatteras off Galveston, and 
"K^a^rsar " ^^^^^^ drove the commerce of the United States from 
June 19, 1864 the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, off the coast of France, 
Semmes accepted a challenge from Captain Winslow, 
of the Kearsarge. Wmslow had sldlfully concealed iron chains 
under some planking on the Federal warshij). The shots of the 
Alabama fell hannlessly from the sides of the Kearsarge, while 
the latter riddled the Alabama and sent her to the bottom.^ 

To the teacher: Sketches of Farragut and of Semmes may 
be prepared; or accounts of Lieutenant Cushing's exploit in 
blowing up the Confederate ironclad Albemaile, and the career of 
the Confederate ram Arkansas in the Mississippi River. 

The student should eleai'ly understand the paragraph describ- 
ing the nature of the Emancipation Proclamation as a means to 
an end; for President Lincoln's object in waging war was to 
Emancipa- preserve the Union. If he could hasten that end by 
tion impor- offering freedom to the slave, he would do that. If 
tant result of ^^le war could be brought to an end by guaranteeing 
the continuance of slavery so long as the Southern 
people wanted it, he would do that also. The Union armies did 
not fight to free the slave on the one hand ; and the Confederates 
did not fight to maintain slaveiy on the other. Within the Union 
lines slavery continued until the action of the States in passing 
the Thirteenth Amendment set all the slaves free. 

We have, in this chapter, followed the story of a struggle 
which put the government and the people of the United States 
to the severest test. As the prime outcome of the struggle, the 
Republic found itself a consolidated Nation. It is now conceded 
that the Federal Government is supreme over the States. That 

^^ Semmes had previously commanded the Sumter, built in the 
Confederate States. The Confederate ship Shenandoah, under 
the command of Captain James I. Waddell, cruised in the Pacific 
Ocean, Avhere it learned of the fall of the Confederacy. It then 
proceeded to European waters and surrendered the last Con- 
federate flag on November 6, 1865. 



LESSONS DERIVED FROM THE WAR 329 

form of State rights which embraced the doctrine of secession 
and of nullification has now vanished. Yet, except for a short 
while in the " military districts " arranged by Con- ^j^ p ^ 
gress, no all-powerful central government was set up. Republic 
The States still maintain the general principles of becomes a 
local self-government, which have given the people of 
this country so large a measure of individual freedom.^" 

Washing-ton, returning to private life in the flush of victoiy 
and of independence achieved ; Lincoln, liberal-minded in the hour 
of victory; and Robert E. Lee, calm and courageous in the bitter- 
ness of defeat, have bequeathed to Americans a heritage more 
glorious than the triumphs of Alexander the Great, Lessons 
of Julius Caesar, of Napoleon, or of any conqueror of derived from 
whom we read in the history of any country. Just ® ^^^ 
as soon as the worst evils of the Reconstruction misgovernment 
were done away with, the South began again to prosper. Many 
able young men of the South went North and wrote their names 
high in industrial enterprise with their fellow-countrymen of the 
North. Northern capital poured into the South, and with it went 
men with executive and business ability to develop the resources 
of the South. The two gTeat sections have come more and more 
to have common interests. Finally, no country in the world ever 
saw a vanquished part reunite with the victorious section so 
quickly as reunion foUoived division in the United States. It is 
not a government " held together by bayonets," as Horace Greeley 
thought it would be if war was declared; but it is held together 
by the far stronger ties of loyalty and affection for what Amer- 
eans, North and South, believe to be a government as nearly as 
possible of the people, hy the people, for the people. 

^ To the teacher : These paragraphs, together with ensuing 
ones on the same subject, are of prime importance. Historians 
writing soon after the War of Secession placed mistaken emphasis 
upon the moral issue involved in slavery as the cause of political 
controversy and as the direct cause of the war itself. The sudden 
death of Presideilt Lincoln, together with an important but inci- 
dental result of the war in the abolition of slavery, caused many 
to lose sight of Lincoln's single-hearted purpose in waging the war 
for the preservation of the Union. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Feom the Close of the REcoNSTRucTioisr Peeiod to 
Recent Times 

From the Close of the Reconstruction Era through 
War with Spain. — Americans have just cause to be 
proud of tlie cahn way iii which the country received 
the decision of the Federal commis- ,^ — 

sion with regard to the Presidential 
election of 1876. On the one hand, 
Tilden patriotically nrged his fol- 



lowers to accept the decision; and, i "%/ 

on the other hand, Hayes showed 
patriotism and character 



^ 



End of Re- i • i 

construction of a liigli ordcr by con- 
ducting himself with 
moderation in victory. One of ruthebford b. hates 

T^ -TiXT 1 n i. L^ i. Born Delaware, Ohio, 

President Hayes nrst acts was to October 4, 1822. served 

^ with distinction in War of 

take steps to remove r ederal secession, rising to rank of 

^ brigadier-general of volun- 

troops from the Southern States S%6reiect'edSTr^sev: 
and to allow the people to resume Ke'sTdlftriTrPs?;^!"^ 
self-government, so that the South Jeform movem'*ent"anT^n 

. , , p ,, • p educational work. Died 

might recover trom the rum 01 war 1893. 

and the even worse evils of the reconstruction era. 

In the North, during the war and for some years 
Relations afterwards, immigrants from Europe 
cajkarand pourod into the United States as never be- 
labor fore. Increasing thousands of these for- 
eigners found ready employment in manufactories 

330 



REDUCING THE NATIONAL DEBT 



331 



and mines and in building railroads. Great corpora- 
tions were created, and the day of personal touch 
between employer and employed seemed to be past. 
When these relations became less intimate, labor 
troubles proportionately increased. 

During this period great strides were made in 
reducing the national debt, which had grown 




Completion of the first transcontinental railroad system. Meeting of the Union 
Pacific (working westward from Omaha) and Central Pacific (working eastward from 
San Francisco) Railroads in Utah in 1869. 

enormously during the war, and which, at the close of 
hostilities, had reached a total of two and a half bil- 
lion dollars. In the accomplishment of this „ , . ,^ 

^ Reducing the 

work, Hugh W. McCulloch and David A. national 

debt 

Wells are entitled to appreciation with the 
able men of earlier times, such as Robert Morris, 
Alexander Hamilton, and Albert Gallatin. As the 
Federal Government gained in stability, it was able 



.^^m 



332 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 

to get loans at a lower rate of interest. Therefore it 
borrowed large amounts in order to pay the prin- 
cipal of the war debt, which bore a much higher rate 
of interest.^ 

In 1880, another effort was made by a faction of 
the Republican party to nominate General Grant for 
a third term. The effort again 
failed, and the party nominated 
General James A. Garfield, of 
Ohio, who, like Grant and Hayes, 
had seen active service in the War 
of Secession. The Democrats like- 
wise nominated a veteran of the 
T. .. .. , war, General Winfield 

Presidential ' 

election of Scott Haucock, of Pcnii- ' ^; 

1880 "'--< _ .^ .-^ 

sylvania. Garfield was ^^^es a. garfield 
elected; and, with him, Chester A. ?o™,^^^?f^;O^L°'^<^ 

' ' ' vember 19, 1831. Served 

Arthur, of New York, as Vice- i^ war of secession, rising 

' ' to rank of major-general, 

T^T'oairlon+ 2 1S63; served in Congress; 

j: H^toi(.lt;ilL. elected President, 1880; 

As in the case of every newly- |^^£oSt|/.;^'D^^^ 
elected President since Jackson, ^^p^^™^^"" ^^' ^^^^■ 
Garfield was surrounded by innumerable office- 
seekers. Because the President seemed to favor one 

^In 18(33, Congress had provided for the establishment of a 
system of national banks. Banking' associations were allowed to 
deposit United States bonds in the Federal treasury and receive 
in return bank notes equal in value to 90 per cent of the face value 
of the bonds. 

^ In these Presidential campaigns there were other candidates 
than those of the Democratic and Republican parties. The Prohi- 
bition party had begun regularly to nominate candidates; but the 
prohibition or anti-saloon movement gained its greatest power 
through the aid of political parties in the States rather than in 
opposition to them as a separate organization. 



CIVIL SERVICE REFORM 333 

faction of the Republican party more than the other, 
he was fiercely denounced by the latter. This Assassina- 
public abuse of Garfield, together with per- president 
sonal disappointment in not receiving an Garfield, issi 
office, led Charles J. Guiteau to attack the President, 
whom he shot and mortally wounded, July 2, 1881. 
Garfield died on the 19tli of September, and Chester 
A. Arthur took the oath of office as President. 

The immediate effect of the 
assassination of the President was 
to arouse the whole country to the 
urgent need for reform in the 
matter of appointments to office. 
Consequently, in 1883, Congress 
passed a law providing for the ap- 
pointment of a Civil Service Com- 
mission. The powers and scope of 
CHESTER A. ARTHUR tlils body wcrc broadened until it 
Born Fairfield ver- excTcised au influeuce on the ap- 

mont, October 5, 1830. ^ 

e'iSS vi'rA"s'fdT„t':Hh Pointment of the ma- cvu service 

Garfield, 1880; succeeded n/-wT^ifTr ^-P -fliri in i n rv r* Reform 
toPresidency, lS81-'85. J^^^^J ^^ ^^^^ lilinOI 

Died 1886. officials lu the employ of the Fed- 

eral Government. Under the Civil Service system, 
appointments are made by means of competitive ex- 
aminations, and the appointees serve during good be- 
havior or as long as they do their duties well. The 
merit system thus began to replace the ^^ spoils sys- 
tem/' which had been in use for nearly half a century.^ 

^ The name of George William Curtis should be remembered in 
coiineetioii with this reform. There were times when the reform 
was halted or even thrown backwards ; but in nearly every instance 
the lost gTonnd was later regained and new ground taken. 




334 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 

The Presidential election of 1884 was closely con- 
tested. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland, 
Cleveland of Ncw York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of 
pr^swent, Indiana. The Republicans nominated 
^^ James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. 

Logan, of Illinois. Cleveland and Hendricks were 
elected by a small majority. The result was decided 
by the electoral vote of New York; and in this and 
subsequent closely-contested elec- 
tions New York came to be known 
as the ^^ pivotal State. "^ 

Since the country had lost four 
Presidents by death. Congress, in 
1886, passed a Presidential Succes- 
sion Act. It provided that officers 
of the Cabinet should succeed to 
the Presidency in case of the death 
or disability of both the President grover Cleveland 
Presidential and the Vicc-President. jers^eT Schlk ^sIt" 
fcTlli^a The order of succession ^Sriffe^i: n'wTo^II 

ACtpassea, Mavor of Buffalo. 1881; 

IMb provided was as lOllOWS : Governor of New York. 

_,^ i r. o..i /oxr^ 1882; President, 1885-'89. 

(1) Secretary ot State, (2) Secre- and again, 1893-97. 

^ ^ ^ 7 \ / Died, Princeton, New Jer- 

tary of the Treasury, (3) Secre- sey. iqos. 
tary of War, and so forth, in the order of the estab- 
lishment of the Cabinet offices. During the following 
year provision was made that the courts of the re- 




■* On account of his attitude in opposition to civil service and 
other ref onus, Blaine had been warmly opposed for the nomination 
by many Republicans, such as George F. Hoar and Henn- Cabot 
Lodge, of Massachusetts, and Andrew D. White and Theodore 
Roosevelt, of New York. These m6n ultimately supported the 
nominee of the party; those Republicans who opposed the nominee 
were called " Mugwumps." 



ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 335 

spective States should decide contested electoral 
votes^ so that Congress need not again face a danger- 
ous situation, such as arose in the disputed election 
of 1876. 

In the Presidential election of 1888 the tariff was 
the principal issue. The Democrats had previously 
declared themselves in favor of 
lowering import taxes ; but a Re- 
publican majority in the . . 
Senate had prevented Harrison 

elected 

any action by Cleveland President, 

1888 

and the Democratic ma- 
jority in the House. Cleveland was 
again, in 1888, the nominee of the 
Democrats on a ''tariff reform" 
platform. The Republicans nom- 
Born North Bend, Ohio, iuatcd 'Bcnjamlu Harrison, of 

August 20, 1833. Graduate -_.-,. -, n e* 

Miami University; prac- ludiaua, a graudsou ot lormcr 

tised law in Indiana; served -tttmt tt tt 

in War of Secession and i^reSldeut William H. HamSOU. 

brevetted brigadier-general 

at close of war; United Clcvclaud was defeated, although 

States Senator, 1881- 8/ ; 70 

£[ed''il'?ndianfpoUs; ^^ reccived a larger plurality of 
March 13, 1901. ^-^q popular vote than when he was 

elected four years previously. This time New York 
gave her 36 electoral votes to Harrison, and with 
those votes went victory for the Republican party. 

A glance at the table in Appendix E will show 
that after the admission of Nevada and Admission of 
Nebraska, in 1864 and 1867, only one State, fn'^^hf wek 
Colorado, had been admitted into the i889-'9o 
Union in the twenty-two years from 1867 to 1889. 
In 1889, however, four new States were added, and 
two more were admitted in 1890. These States were 




BENJAMIN HARRISON 



336 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN- 

North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington, 
Idaho, and Wyoming. Because of her admission 
into the Union on the hundredth anniversary of 
the signing of the Declaration of Independence, 
Colorado became kno^\ai as the ' ' Centennial State. ' ' 
Like California, Colorado, as the '' Territory of 
Jefferson,'' owed its first growth to the discovery 
of gold mines. Colorado was found to be rich in 
other minerals as well ; and, after irrigation, her dry 
lands proved very valuable for agriculture. 

North and South Dakota owed much of their 
growth to agriculture ; but the discovery of precious 
metals in Montana, and at other points in the North- 
west, aided greatly in the settlement of that whole 
region. Sheep grazing became a profitable industry. 
Across the Rocky Montains, in Oregon and Wash- 
ington, trade and industry began to thrive with the 
advent of more railroads and steamboat lines. The 
climate and soil were adapted to the production of 
exceptionally fine apples, pears, and other fruits. 
Great cities grew up in places where a few years 
before there had been lonely ranches or, perhaps, 
Indian villages.^ Utah, also, was being rapidly de- 
veloped by the industry of the Mormons ; but, owing 
to the practice of polygamy, Congress refused to 
admit the Territory into the Union as a State until 
polygamy should be abolished. 

° The Northern Pacific Railroad was completed in 1883. This 
road and its branches aided greatly in the development of the 
conntry. 



McKINLEY TARIFF BILL 337 

In many of these western States woman had been 
given a vote. The first Territory permanently (see 
p. 83) to grant the suffrage to woman was Wyoming. 
This was in 1869. Colorado, as the first State to do 
so, followed in 1893. Since that time many woman 
other States have followed the precedent suffrage 
of these first woman-suffrage States and Territories. 
In some of the latter States the privilege of voting 
was granted to women under special restrictions. In 
other cases equal political rights were accorded men 
and women. 

Under the leadership of William McKinley, the 
Eepublicans in Congress prepared to raise the tariff 
rates. At the same time, there was in the Republican 
party a strong faction which demanded the free coin- 
age of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 with gold. This 
faction refused to vote for the tariff if Mcxiniey 
a ^'free silver" bill was not likewise sheiman ' 
enacted. The majority of the Republican ciiTe'^Act, 
Congressmen were opposed to '^free ^^^^ 
silver," so a compromise was arranged; the 
McKinley tariff bill was passed, and a bill was 
brought forward which provided in part what the 
'^free silver" men desired. Although making pro- 
vision for an increase in the purchase of bullion, this 
currency bill, known as the Sherman Silver Purchase 
Act, could be interpreted either in a way favorable 
to the free coinage of silver or in a way unfavorable 
to it. It was subsequently interpreted in a way un- 
favorable to the ^^free silver" advocates by John G. 
Carlisle, Secretary of the Treasury during Cleve- 
land's second administration. This question is of im- 

22 



338 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 

portance, as it came forward very iDrominently in 
national politics in 1896 (p. 343)/' 

The popular outcry against the formation of 

l^reclatory corporations called '^trusts" had become 

so insistent that the .orreat political parties 

Sherman . . . . 

anti-trust United lu passiug the "Sherman Anti- 
Trust '' law. This law made illegal all 
''combinations" formed unduly to restrain trade 
and throttle competition. Eegulation under the pro- 
visions of this law, however, was not seriously 
attempted or enforced until the administrations of 
Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson. 

In Congress, during Harrison's administration, 

unusual powers were assumed by the Speaker of the 

House of Eepresentatives, Thomas B. Reed. 

The Speaker- i ^ x- £i • 

ship of the He made such eiiective use oi his powers m 
Representa- appointing committccs, in according recog- 
nition to members on the floor, and in en- 
forcing rules to ''rush'' through party legislation, 
that he became known as ^•' Czar ' ' Reed."^ 

'^ Until 1S73, the coinage of silver and gold had been free ; that 
is, any one who had gold or silver bullion eonld take the same to 
the United States mints and have it made into gold or silver coin. 
The ratio of weight between the silver and the gold dollar Avas fixed 
at 16 to 1. In 1873, Congress made gold the nnit of value and 
limited the coinage of silver to fractional cuiTency; in 1878, 
however, the Bland-Allison Act provided for very large purchases 
of silver bullion, and the Shenuan Silver Purchase Act of 1890 
was a modification of the Bland-Allison Act. It provided for the 
purchase each month of 4,500.000 ounces of silver, to be paid for 
with notes of the United States Treasuiy. These notes were re- 
deemable by the Government in coin. 

"^ This extraordinary power, which began far to overshadow 
the power of any other official, continued during the Republican 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION 339 

In 1892, President Harrison was again nominated 
by the llepublicans. The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland for the third time. The principal 
issue of the campaign was the tariff. The Republi- 
cans defended the McKinley Bill ; the Cleveland re- 
Democrats attacked it and called for tariff elected, 1892 
reform. This time the Democrats elected the Presi- 
dent. They secured also a large majority in the 
House of Representatives and a small majority in 
the Senate. 

Before C'leveland was inaugurated there occurred 
a sharp falling off in the value of silver, and gold 
became scarce. At times the gold reserve reached so 
low a point that it became very difficult to maintain" 
the country on a gold basis. Cleveland Financial 
called Congress together in special session legislation 
and brought about the repeal of the Sherman Silver 
Purchase Act; but financial distress continued for 
some time and there were many failures in business 
throughout the country.^ 

Since the Democratic party had been returned to 
power on the issue of the tariff, Cleveland urged 

speakership of Joseph G. Camion. In 1910, however, a. com- 
bination of Democrats and " insurgent " Republicans deprived the 
speakership of much of its power and influence, and materially 
changed the rules of the House. 

* It is widely believed that by these bold acts, eaiTied through 
in spite of great opposition in the ranks of both great parties, 
Cleveland upheld th:e credit of the country. In his inaugural 
address he declared : " So far as the executive branch of the 
government can inter\'ene, none of the powers with which it is in- 
vested will be withheld when their exercise is deemed necessary to 
malritain our national credit or to avert financial disaster." 



340 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 



legislation in Congress looking to a reduction of 
import duties in accordance with the Democratic cam- 
paign pledges. Under the leadership of 
William L. Wilson, the House passed a bill 
making material reductions in the tariff 
rates. In the Senate, however, the bill was 
very greatly modified by an alliance between the 



Cleveland 
thwarted in 
effort to 
lower the 
tariff duties 




STREET SCENE IN DAWSON CITY, ALASKA, AT THE CLOSE OP THE NINETEENTH 

CENTURY 

Republicans and a small number of high-tariff Demo- 
crats under the leadership of Arthur P. Gorman. In 
its amended form, the bill passed both Houses and 
became known as the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Bill 
President Cleveland, however, declared that the bill 
did not carry out the promises of the Democratic 
party. For this reason he refused to sign the meas- 
ure, and the bill became a law without his signature. 
The United States Government had many occa- 
sions for dispute with Great Britain subsequent to the 



ARBITRATION WITH GREAT BRITAIN 341 

War of 1812. Besides the numerous boundary dis- 
putes arising in the second quarter of the nineteenth 
century (pp. 220, 243), the Alabama Claims had been 
pressed for settlement immediately after 
the War of Secession.^ Twenty years later with Great 
a dispute arose with Great Britain with re- 
spect to seal fishing in the Bering Sea. This dispute 
was settled by arbitration, after the United States 
had seized a number of British ships found fishing 
in waters declared b}^ the United States to be under 
the jurisdiction of this government. These last- 
named negotiations were conducted by Secretary 
Blaine during the administration of President 
Harrison. 

During Cleveland's second term an even more 
serious difference arose between the United States 
and Great Britain with respect to the Venezuela- 
British Guiana boundary line. Great Britain had 
notified Venezuela that she purposed occupying part 
of the territory claimed by that country, whereupon 
Venezuela appealed to the United States for protec- 
tion. President Cleveland at once offered the friendly 
services of the United States to arbitrate the dispute 

® The Confederate warship Alabama had been contracted for 
and constructed in England. Although the vessel left England in 
an unarmed condition, the United States contended that the British 
Government was infonned of the destination of the vessel, and 
that it should have prevented the ship from leaving port. In 1871 
a special treaty was arranged with Great Britain in order to settle 
this controversy by arbitration. The question was accordingly 
submitted to a tribunal at Geneva, Switzerland. This tinbunal was 
composed of five members, representing, respectively, Switzerland, 
Italy, Brazil, Great Britain, and the United States. It awarded 
the United States damages amounting to $15,500,000. 



342 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 



between the countries. When the British Government 
refused to consider this proposition, Cleveland took 
the position that the Monroe Doctrine was intended to 
protect any American country from aggression on the 
part of European powers. After a vigorous message 
sent by the President to Congress with regard to this 
conttoversy, Great Britain decided to submit the 



v%^- .- ^^^|P'V|^H| 


^ I i i 1 1 


i 








lUlMIPt 


If..... 

M. JL" * * * 


fe-J 


^t^V 


•-'~**»?^S|^R, _ KSi^SSSM^Ja 


*« 


tit"' 







THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

The corner-stone of this buildint? was laid in 1792. President Washington and 
Major P. C. L'Enfant selected the site. Much of the old Capitol was burned by the 
British in 1814; after the War of 1812, it was rebuilt and extended from time to 
time as more space was needed for the expansion of the business of the Federal 
Government. 

matter to an international tribunal for arbitration. 
This tribunal carefully considered the issue and 
announced its decision some years later. 

In 1894, President Cleveland was called upon to 
make a decision of far-reaching importance with re- 
gard to domestic affairs. In that year there was a 
great strike among railroad employes in the West, 



PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1896 343 

the centre of the disturbances being at Chicago. 
When the railroads attempted to secure other em- 
ployes, rioting followed and railroad trains Federal 



were impeded or altogether blocked. Presi- msures 



government 
insures 
transit of 



dent Cleveland, over the protest of the unS 
Governor of Illinois, sent troops to the states mails 
scene to insure the safety and transit of United States 
mails and to protect interstate commerce. The action 
of the President indicated further control by the 
Federal Government in matters at one time thought 
to be wholly under State management. 

In the Presidential campaign of 1896 the Republi- 
cans nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, a cham- 
pion of high tariff ; while the Democrats nominated 
William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, who „ ., ,. , 

^ -^ ' ' Presidential 

was the strongest advocate in the Demo- election of 
cratic party of the free coinage of silver at 
the ratio of 16 to 1 (p. 338). In the campaign the 
tariff issue was subordinated to the issue of free 
silver. The opponents of ^^free silver'' were called 
^' sound money'' men. 'Both parties split on this 
issue. The Republican advocates of ^^free silver" 
organized a National Silver Party and endorsed 
Bryan. On the other hand, the '^gold" Democrats 
met in convention and nominated John H. Palmer, of 
Illinois, for President. Bryan made the most ex- 
tended campaign ever undertaken by the candidate 
of any party ; but the Republicans won and McKinley 
was elected President. With him was elected Garret 
A. Hobart, of New Jersey, as Vice-President.^^ 

" McKinley received 271 electoral votes and Bryan 176. Of 
the popular vote, in round numbers, McKinley received 7,100,000 ; 
Biyan, 6,500,000. 



344 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 

After his inaugTiration, President McKinley 

called Congress together in special session; 

Tariff Bill, and, in July, 1896, the Wilson-Gorman Act 

1896 

was replaced by the Dingley tariff, which 
raised many of the duties higher than they had been 
under the McKinley tariff bill of 1890. 

The War with Spain; Cuba Freed; Acquisition of 
Porto Rico and the Philippines. — 
During McKinley 's administration 
special attention was attracted to 
the affairs of Cuba. Although, for 
many years, a state of rebellion 
against Spanish authority had ex- 
isted in that Island, conditions had 
grown much worse under the cruel 
policies of the Spanish General 
Weyler, who finally concentrated ZZ'Z:::Z:Xn. 
conamons in over 200,000 men, women, SatfnV coil,e'?ta?£ 

Cuba o-t-irl r^Tiilrlyan in pp,^-^;. m public schools; servedin 

anCl CnilCiren m camps war of secession, rising 

T T n IT rm from private to brevet- 

guarded by soldiers. Those con- major at dose of wan served 

^ -, . ., . . J in Congress; Governor of 

lined m these camps died m great ohio, i892-'96; Presi- 

1 p • rv> • i P ? 1 dent, 1897-1901; shot by 

numbers irom insumcient lood and assassin. September 5,1901, 

and died 14th of same 

shelter, or from disease. The month. 
property interests and the lives of United States 
citizens were f requentl}^ in danger, and there was also 
the danger of yellow fever being extended to Amer- 
ican seaports, due to the lack of control of that disease 
in Cuba. 

In June, 1897, the United States Government pro- 
tested against a continuance of these conditions. 
Consequently, Spain promised reforms and some 
measure of self-government to the Cuban people ; but 







DEWEY DEFEATS SPANISH AT MANILA 345 

conditions practically remained as they were. On 
the 15th of February, 1898, the American battleship 
Maine was blown np in the harbor of Blowing up 
Havana. More than 250 officers and sailors °y^ne," 
lost their lives, either by drowning or by ^®^' ^^' ^^'^ 
the explosion itself, which seemed to be due to a 
submarine mine. 

Sentiment in the United States set in strongly 
against Spain; and, after fruitless negotiations be- 
tween the two nations, the United States Government, 
on April 20, demanded the withdrawal of Spanish 
troops from Cuba. Spain refused to with- Declaration 
draw the troops, and both countries pre- ^^ ^^^ 
pared for war. The President called for 125,000 
volunteers, and this number was later increased to 
200,000. If any one had entertained any possible 
doubt as to the loyalty of the entire country, this 
doubt was now removed. Union and Confederate 
veterans alike responded to the call of war, but this 
time they were fighting together in the same ranks 
against a common foe. 

On May 1, Commodore Dewey, who had been in 
command of the Pacific squadron at Hong Kong at 
the time that war was declared, entered Manila 
harbor, in the Philippines, and attacked the Spanish 
ships in those waters. In a few hours every ^ 

- ^ ^ '' Dewey de- 

Spanish ship was sunk or burned. No feats Spanish 

. . . . T 1 .,1 fleet at 

serious mjury was sustamed by any of the Manila, 
American vessels. The Americans reported 
but two men wounded, while the Spanish losses 
amounted to several hundred. Subsequently a land 
force was sent to the Philippines under the com- 



346 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 



mand of General Merritt ; and, on August 13, Manila 
fell into the hands of the Americans, who thereafter 
controlled the Philippine Islands, which had been 
held by Spain almost from the time of the first 
voyage around the world (p. 14). 

In the meantime a Spanish fleet under Admiral 
Cervera had entered the harbor of Santiago, Cuba. 
Operations Here Corvera was blockaded by an 
in Cuba American fleet under Admiral Sampson. 
These events had taken place in May. In elune an 
army of 16,000 men under Major-General Shaffer 




Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York City 

Skyline of New York City from Governor's Island, the sight that meets the immi- 
grant entering New York harbor. 

set out from Tampa, Florida, to cooperate with the 
American fleet under Sampson.^ ^ 

" Lieutenant Hobson, of the United States Navy, endeavored 
to block the entrance to Santiago harbor and thus cut off the 
escape of the Spanish fleet. With a small gi^oup of volunteers, 
Hobson conducted the collier Merrimac into the channel of the 
harbor and, under heavy fire from the Spanish batteries, sank 
the vessel. The Merrimac had not, however, reached the desired 
spot for sinking" before the steering gear of the vessel Avas shot 
away. The channel was not blocked, and Hobson and his men were 
captured. 



OPERATIONS IN CUBA 



347 



The 1st of July El Oaney and San Juan Hill, part 
of the defences of Santiago, were assaulted by the 
American troops, and, after two days of fighting, 
were carried by storm. Much of the success of these 
two engagements was due to the energy and experi- 
ence of Major-Generals Henry W. Lawton, a Union 
veteran of the War of Secession, and Joseph Wheeler, 
a Confederate veteran. The regular infantry fought 
well, aided by the charge of volunteer troops, part of 
whom were known as the 



^ ' Eougli 



Riders," under 




A modern express train in service between New York and Chicago. Compare 
this with the Charleston-Hamburg train on p. 2G2. The difference in the trains 
represents a difference of less than one hundred years. 

command of Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant- 
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. 

In spite of the American successes in storming the 
outer works of the Spanish fortifications, the troops 
could not exert their full strength, because they were 
not properly prepared for war. They suffered from 
insufficient supplies and from clothing ill adapted to 
the tropical heat. A great many died of disease due 
to unsanitary conditions, not only in the island of 
Cuba, but also in the military camps in the United 
States. 



348 FROM RECONSTRUCTION THROUGH WAR WITH SPAIN 

On July 3, while Admiral Sampson was absent and 
the American fleet was under the command of Com- 
modore Schley, the Spanish fleet under Admiral 
cervera's Cervera attempted to escape. Cervera, 
destroyed, liowevcr, was vigorously attacked in a run- 
juiy 3 ning fight extending for many miles, until 

every one of the Spanish warships was sunk or 
beached under the destructive and accurate fire of 
the American g-unners. American superiority was 
shown by the fact that only one man was killed and 
one wounded, both of whom were on Schley's flag- 
ship, the Brooklyn. The Spanish loss was over 500 
in killed and wounded. 

Two weeks later Santiago surrendered to the 
American army ; and, in a campaign which occupied 
Treaty with part of July and August, General Miles 
Sfsition secured possession of Porto Eico. On 
Philippines, ^ii^st 12, Spain was ready to yield, and 
1898 ]3y w-^Q terms of a treaty, signed Decem- 

ber 10, she gave up Cuba, and ceded to the United 
States Porto Eico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands. 
For the last-named islands the United States agreed 
to pay $20,000,000. Thus Spanish rule in the western 
hemisphere, dating from 1492, was ended; and, by 
a strange coincidence, the last remaining vessel of 
Cervera's fleet was the Cristobal Colon, named after 
the man who discovered and claimed the New World 
^^ ^ ^,. in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. 

The Republic . r^ ^ I- 

of Cuba, The United States continued the control 

of Cuba until the Cubans had drawn up a 

Constitution in accordance with conditions laid down 



ATTITUDE OF UNITED STATES TOWARD CHINA 349 

by Congress. The Eepublic of Cuba was proclaimed 
on the 20th of May, 1902.12 

Recent Events. — The natives of the Philipx)ine 
Islands, who had been in rebellion against Spanish 
authority, welcomed the American troops and worked 
with them. These natives expected that Philippine 
the United States would give them inde- clptiVe of 
pendence at the end of the war with Spain. Aguinaido 
When this was denied them, they rose in revolt. 
This revolt cost the United States heavily in money 
and lives ; but it was finally brought under control 
after the capture, in 1901, of the Philippine leader, 
Aguinaldo.i'^ 

In 1899, John Hay, Secretary of State, made pro- 
tests to the governments of Great Britain, Germany, 
and Russia against what seemed the plan of those 
governments to secure control of China. Attitude of 
To these protests Great Britain alone re- ^tatl^s*^ 
turned a favorable reply; but, in the mean- foward^^"* 
time, the Chinese were aroused by the ^^^"^ 
threatened loss of their independence. In 1900 the 

" In 1906 disorder in Cuba, arising- out of a disputed election, 
brought about intervention by the United States Government under 
President Roosevelt, who appointed Secretary of War William H. 
Taf t as Militaiy Governor of that island. Taft was succeeded by 
Governor Magoon. In 1909 order was restored, and the Cubans 
resumed control of their own affairs. 

" This capture was effected through the daring strategy of 
General Frederick Funston, who pretended to be one of a number 
of captives in the hands of hostile natives. As such, they were led 
within striking distance of the headquarters of Aguinaldo, whom 
the supposed captives seized. 

During the Spanish war the Hawaiian Islands were annexed 
to the United States. 



350 



RECENT EVENTS 



society known as the ''Boxers" so stirred up the 
people against foreigners that even the embassies 
in Peking were attacked. The Chinese Government 
was unable to put down the rebellion, which was at 
last crushed by the armies of the allied powers, in- 
cluding the forces of the United States. An in- 
demnity amounting to $333,000,000 was demanded of 
China by the allied nations, of which $24,000,000 was 




HECLAIMING ARID LANDS IN THE WEST BY RESERVOIRS AND IRRIGATICN 

The Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project. Opening ceremony, June 17, 1905. 
In 1902, by Act of Congress, a "reclamation fund" was created from money re- 
ceived from the sale of public lands. The illustration presents one of the important 
results. 

the share allotted to the United States. Our govern- 
ment thought this amount excessive and remitted 
more than half of the claim, or $13,000,000.^4 

In 1900 the Republicans renominated President 

" Prior to and during' this period a strong- opposition arose to 
the immigration of Chinese laborers, especially on the Pacific coast. 
Race riots occurred in California, where attempts were successfully 
made to limit the civil privileges of the Chinese. 



THE PANAMA CANAL 351 

McKinley and chose Theodore Roosevelt, of New 
York, as their candidate for Vice-Presi- „ ,.. , 

' , , McKinley 

dent. Bryan was ai^ain nominated by the re-eiected; 

cry of 

Democrats, who declared that the relin- "imperiai- 
quishment of United States control of the 
Philippines as colonial possessions was the para- 
mount issue. The annexation of 
the islands they called a policy 
of ^'imperialism" contrary to 
American principles and pre- 
cedents. The Democrats re- 
ceived the support of many 
noted Republicans on this issue, 
but the Republicans were again 
victorious, and McKinley and 
Roosevelt received a large ma- 
copyright.ciinedinst jorlty of tho elcctoral vote. 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT " ^ 

Born New York, October In tho foUowlug VCar PrCSl- 

27, 1858. Graduate Harvard; . ^. *^ 

^^^^^^}^''^^'':'\^f^Y'^'^)^^:^^.\ dent McKinley, while on a visit 

1882-84; appointed to Civil *> ' 

tsrpr^id^nTErif'New to the Paii-Americaii Exposition 
r8^t'97Y'.°e%ed"iri;°S at Butfalo, was sliotby ^^^^^^.„^_ 

War, and became Colonel of 7 • j. tt T 1 x- * 

Rough Riders; Governor New aU aUarchlSt. He dlCd tion of 

York, 1899-1900; Vice-Presi- ^^ , , ^ , t mi President 

dent with McKinley, succeed- beptemoer 14, aUCi 1110- McKinley, 

ing to Presidency on Septem- i j j i 1901 

ber 5, 1901; elected President, odorC ROOSCVClt tOOK 
1904; nominee of Progressive 

Party in 1912. the oath of offico as President. 

The principal achievement associated with Roose« 
velt's first term was the acquisition of the Panama 
Canal Zone and the beginning of the canal that has 
since been cut through the Isthmus, uniting ^he Panama 
the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Clayton- ^anai 
Bulwer treaty with Great Britain, signed under 
President Tyler (p. 243), was set aside and a new 




352 



RECENT EVENTS 



agreement entered into with Great Britain. This 
new agreement gave the United States a free hand 
to construct and operate the proposed canal. 

A proposal was made to the 
United States of Colombia for 
the lease of a canal zone through 
the State of Panama, then a part 
of Colombia. Colombia, how- 
ever, rejected the terms of the 
proposal. Panama then seceded 
from Colombia and set up a gov- 
ernment of its own in November, 
1903. This government Presi- 
dent Roosevelt promptly recog- 
nized and protected from attack 
by the Colombian military 
forces. In the same month the 
United States acquired from 
the new republic the right to 
build a canal and the control of 
a canal zone. Construction was 
energetically begun in the fol- 
lowing year, and the canal was 
first operated in 1914. The 
work was carried to completion 
under the direction of Colonels 
G. W. Goethals and W. C. 
Gorgas. Colonel Goethals was the constructive head 
of the enterprise, and Colonel Gorgas made the 
achievement possible by the institution of a thorough 
system of sanitation. Under this system a region 
formerly fatal to the workers there was changed 




Copyritjlit, 1912, by C. R. Gray 
PANAMA CANAL ZONE 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUTHWEST 353 

into a healthful and i>rosperous section of Cen- 
tral America, not only for the thousands of men 
engaged in the undertaking but also for the native 
inhabitants. 

The reform work of Eoosevelt in New York and 
his efforts to extend the Civil Service had made him 
unpopular with certain powerful politicians of his 
own party ; but there was a strong popular demand 
for him as a candidate to succeed 
himself. Accordingly, the Repub- 
lican convention nominated Roose- 
velt and Charles W. Fairbanks, of 
Indiana, for President and Vice- 
President. The Democrats nom- 
inated Alton B. Parker, Roosevelt 

of New York, and Henry ^::^^,,,^ 
a. Davis, of West Vir- '''^ 
COL. GEORGE w. GOETHALs, glma. Rooscvclt aud Fairbanks 

CHIEF ENGINEER OF THE " 

PANAMA CANAL wcro clectcd by very large major- 
Yo^rr?unf2?r'iS Itics, both of thc elcctoral and of 

Graduate West Point; chief , -, -• , 

of engineers in war with thC pOpuiar VOtC. 

Spain; chief engineer Pan- i -i t r» •! -i 

ama Canal, 1907-14; civil Thc buiichug 01 railroads m 

governor, Panama Canal . 

Zone. the Southwest had accompanied 

railroad construction in the Northwest. By 1883 
railroad connection was made between Kansas City, 
in the Middle West, and Los Angeles by j^^^^^^^^^^^ 
way of Santa Fe. This was the third great of the 

'^ .11 Southwest 

route over the Rocky Mountams, the others 
being the Union Pacific and the Northern Pacific. 
The development of this great southern trunk line 
and its various branches helped settlement in Texas, 
where thriving cities became either great inland in- 

23 




354 



RECENT EVENTS 



dustrial centres or important points of export. 
Oklahoma developed rapidly and was admitted 
into tlie Union in 1907. AVhen New Mexico and 
Arizona entered tlie Union in 1912, the '^ family of 
the United States*' became complete from ocean to 
ocean. 

Upon the reconvening of Congress, subsequent to 
Eoosevelt's election, the President instituted special 
I 




STEAM SHOVEL AT WORK ON THE PANAMA CANAL 

The slides of earth into the canal after completion caused much alarm; but it 
is believed that American engineers have solved the problem and that the slipping 
of the earth will be prevented by a system of drainage. 

investigations into the management of railroads 
and great business corporations. The government 
brought suit against railroad corporations, 
against what was known as the ''Beef 
Trust," against the Standard Oil Company, and 
other great industrial organizations. Railroads 
were prohibited from giving special rates to favorite 
shippers ; and, in 1906, Congress passed a law giving 



Anti-trust 
laws 



SANTO DOMINGO 355 

the Interstate Commerce Commission power to regu- 
late interstate railroad rates. The powers of the 
Commission were also extended to sleeping-car com- 
panies, express companies, and other bodies doing 
interstate business. 

This unusual interference with the methods of 
large corporations aroused the opposition of power- 
ful Republican leaders in Congress ; and, during the 
greater part of Roosevelt's administration, the Presi- 
dent and Congress were at odds. Consequently, 
many of his measures or policies were rejected. The 
President, however, enjoyed an unusually hearty 
support from the masses of the people ; and in some 
cases, he carried out his ideas directly through the 
medium of those whom he appointed to office. 

During Roosevelt's administration the govern- 
ment of Santo Domingo became unable to pay its 
debts to several of the European nations. These 
nations were considering, therefore, direct interfer- 
ence in the affairs of the island republic. Roosevelt, 
however, believed that this interference might, at 
some future time, embarrass the United santo 
States and endanger the Monroe Doctrine. fxT^nsfo**!!' 
He, therefore, brought about an arrange- Mon^roe 
ment by which the United States took i^octnne 
charge of the revenues of Santo Domingo, with 
which it was planned to settle the debts of that 
republic. Although the United States Senate re- 
fused to endorse Roosevelt's plan, the President 
succeeded in carrying out the arrangement without 
the consent of the Senate, which subsequently 
adopted his plans in a modified form. 



356 RECENT EVENTS 

In 1907 a serious financial jjanic affected the en- 
tire country. Many business firms failed or were 
severely crippled. New enterprises could not be 
instituted with success, and there was a great deal of 
suffering and unemplojanent. Congress endeavored 
to meet the difficulty by issuing emergency currency. 
It was believed that the panic itself would not have 
occurred if the supply of available money could have 
been quickly expanded to meet the requirements of 
trade (see p. 362). 

In the past, as a rule, a period of business depres- 
sion had seriously affected the party in power at the 
time when the depression occurred. Roosevelt's 
popularity with the American people, however, had 
not declined on this account. He had served nearly 
all of McKinley's second term; he had been elected 
by a large majority in .1904, and he had declared that 
he would not be a candidate to succeed him- 

Election or 

William H. self. He indicated, however, that his pref- 

Taft, 1903 „ ' ^ ' ^ , . 

erence lor a successor to carry out his 
policies was William H. Taft, of Ohio. Taft and 
James S. Sherman, of New York, were nominated 
by the Republicans for President and Vice-President. 
The Republicans argued for a continuation of 
Roosevelt's policies, together with a reduction in the 
tariff rates passed under the McKinley administra- 
tion. The Democrats, advocating tariff reform, 
together with the further regulation of trusts, nomi- 
nated for the third time William Jennings Bryan 
for President and John W. Kern, of Indiana, for 
Vice-President. Taft and Sherman were elected 
by a majority almost as large as that which had 



INCOME TAX 357 

elected Roosevelt and Fairbanks four years 
l^reviously.^"' 

. Upon Ills inaugTiration, in 1909, President Taft 
called Congress in extra session to carry out the 
Republican platform pledges for a reduction in the 
tariff rates. After considerable debate upon the 
issue, Congress finally revised the 
tariff and passed the Payne- 

Aldrich Bill. It was The Payne- 

widely asserted, how- TaH^ Bin, 
ever, that the rates were ^'°' 
raised rather than reduced, and 
that they favored certain manu- 
facturers. 

Two years later, in the Con- 

copyright, ciinedinst grcssloual elcctious of 1908, the 

WILLIAM H. TAFT Republicaus, for the first time in 

se^pl£TiAltf: G^d^ many years, lost the House of 

Courts ;\T'Aitid s^tates so- Represeutatives to the Democrats. 

licitor- general, 1890-92; -^ •ij.mj'j_T j_n j_ 

judge United States Circuit Presidcut Tait advocatcd a tax 

Court, 1892-1900;governor 

Philippines, 190 i-'o 4; ap- Qji mcomcs, a mcasurc which had 

pointed secretary of War, ' 

cu^bi^i90f?'°p?if°de™r ^^^^ included in the Democratic 
iSioi^'^tit^rd platform. An income tax plan had 
Yale University, 1913. ^^^^ passcd by thc Dcmocratlc 

Congress in Cleveland's term, but it had been de- 
clared unconstitutional by the Supreme income Tax; 
Court. It was now necessary, therefore, in xvrto™^^* 
order to secure an income tax, to pass an constitution 
amendment to the Constitution of the United States. 
Such an amendment was accordingly approved by 

^■^ The Socialist Party nominated Eugene V. Debs, of Illinois, 
for President. Debs, hoAvever, obtained no electoral votas. 




358 RECENT EVENTS 

Congress and ratified by three-fourths of the States, 
and proclaimed in force February 13, 1913. (See 
Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, Appen- 
dix C.) 

Another amendment to the Constitution was 
passed by Congress in 1912. This amendment pro- 
^ . vided for the election of United States 

Popular 

election of scuators by direct vote of the people in- 

United *' J. jr 

States stead of by the State legislatures. Three- 

Amendment fourths of the States approved of the 

XVII . . . 

amendment, and it was proclaimed m force 
May 31, 1913. 

President Taft strongly advocated reciprocity in 
trade with the Dominion of Canada. A treaty em- 
bodying his views was made and was approved by the 
United States Senate, but was subsequently rejected 
by Canada. President Taft endeavored also to ex- 
tend the powers of the international court of arbitra- 
tion established at The Hague. The Senate, how- 
ever, did not endorse this proposal. It rejected, also, 
special arbitration treaties made with Great Britain 
and France. 

Two other measures were passed by the Demo- 
cratic House of Representatives and the Republican 
Senate during President Taft's administration. 
Parcels Post; Tlicse wcre the establishment of postal sav- 
savings "i§'s banks and the inauguration of a par- 
^^^^ eels post. The postal savings banks pro- 

vided for the payment of interest on money deposited 
at United States post offices. Millions of dollars 
which had been, for the most part, hoarded by people 
of small means now began to find circulation. The 



CONSERVATION OF NATIONAL RESOURCES 



359 



parcels post regulations became effective in 1913, and 
rapidly expanded under the direction of the Post- 
master-General. 

President Eoosevelt had been strongly in favor 
of the conservation of national resources, 

. ' Conservation 

and when it seemed that the policy of con- of national 

servation was about to be overthrown by 

the claims to government lands which had been 




Keiiroducci-l by penuibsion of The Philadelphia Commercial Museum 

Blast furnace and pig Iron store-yard at Birmingham, Alabama. The pig iron 
is ready to go to the steel mill to be rolled into rails and all kinds of structural 
metal. 

allowed by Secretary of the Interior Ballinger, 
Gilford Pinchot, Chief of the Federal Bureau of 
Forestry, protested. Pinchot was dismissed by 
President Taft, who vigorously defended Ballinger. 
This matter and a number of other differences 



360 RECENT EVENTS 

brought about a revolt iu the Republican ranks ; and 
those protesting against the attitude of the Presi- 
dent and other Republican leaders became known as 
"insurgents," both in the Senate and in the House 
of Representatives.^*^ 

In 1912 the Republican National Convention met 

in Chicago. The delegates were divided in senti- 

. , ment, some supporting President Taft and 

Presidential ' . 

nominations otliers cx-Presideut Roosevelt. Rival 
campaign of delegations from several States claimed 

1912 

seats in the convention. For the most part, 
the Taft delegates were seated, and their candidate 
was accordingly nominated. A large number of 
Roosevelt delegates, alleging unfair treatment, with- 
drew from the convention. Some of those Avho with- 
drew, and other delegates appointed from the dif- 
ferent States, met in Chicago in August and nom- 
inated Roosevelt and Hiram W. Johnson, of Cali- 
fornia, for President and Vice-President. 

The Democrats held their convention at Baltimore 
and nominated Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey, and 
Thomas R. Marshall, of Indiana. Their platform 
pledged the party to a reduction in the tariff duties, 
which they endeavored to make the principal issue of 
the campaign. The Republicans defended the Payne- 
Aldrich Bill and the policies of President Taft. The 
Progressive party advocated many social reforms, 

^' Senator Robert M. La Toilette, of Michigan, had in- 
augurated a revolt against the older Republican leaders during 
the administration of Roosevelt. Senator La Follette was for 
.some time the leading* "insurgent." Many of these " insurgents " 
united with the Progressive party in 1912. 



UNDERWOOD-SIMMONS TARIFF BILL 361 

and emphasized Roosevelt's policies with regard to 
the conservation of national resources. Wilson and 
Marshall received 435 electoral votes, Roosevelt and 
Johnson 88, and Taft and Sherman 8. The popular 
vote, however, was much closer. Wilson received a 
plurality of the votes, this vote being- in round num- 
bers 6,200,000 for Wilson and Marshall, 4,100,000 for 
Roosevelt and Johnson, and 
2,400,000 for Taft and Sherman. 

Woodrow Wilson became Presi- 
dent subsequent to a term as Gov- 
ernor of New Jersey. It so hap- 
pened that he had been nominated 
in spite of the opposition of Demo- 
crats who had defeated The 
the tariff revision pro- ^t^ZlT^' 

WOODROW WILSON TIT To„-ff Tjni 

Born Staunton. Virginia. POS^d by C 1 e V 1 a U d . ^"^^ ^''' 

ilTe'^Pri^'lif 'gradiat Presidcut Wilsou at once showed 
g^inil'; JlTduIteVh.D.)', hls determination to succeed where 

Johns Hopkins; professor , .-. , tii^-it -i • i 

and president, Princeton Cleveland liad tailed ; and, agamst 

University; governor New i • , • . , . 

Jersey. 1911-1913; elected omections lu liis owu party uot UU- 

President of Umted States, . "^ x^ ./ 

1912. like those encountered by Cleve- 

land, he secured extensive reductions in the tariff 
rates.^"^ 

The Democratic party had pledged itself also to 

" Some of this opposition to the reduction of the tariff rates 
came from the lower South, which, for one hundred years, had 
bitterly opposed the protective tariff. 

It is interesting- to note that President AVilson delivered his 
first message to Congress in person, a custom that had been aban- 
doned since the days of George Washing-ton and John Adams. 
Jefferson had sent to Congress a written messag-e, and subsequent 
Presidents followed his lead in that matter. 




362 RECENT EVENTS 

secure legislation reforming the currency system. 
Against further opposition in both parties, the Presi- 
dent held Congress in extra session to carry out this 
The Glass- secoud great pledge. The result of the 
currency deliberations of Congress on this matter 
^'" was embodied in the Grlass-Owen Currency 

Bill. This measure was designed to prevent financial 
panics, such as had occurred in 1893 and 1907, by 
making the supply of ready money more available 
for the needs of the people. 

A third measure insisted upon by the President, 
in order to carry out the promises of the Democratic 
platform, was to secure legislation intended 
Anti-trust to Strengthen the hands of the Federal 
Government in the prosecution of corpora- 
tions guilty of illegally restraining competition in 
trade. Accordingly, the Clayton Anti-Trust Act was 
passed by Congress, and a Federal Trade Com- 
mission was established.^^ 

Before the close of President Taft's administra- 
tion. President Madero, of Mexico, had been seized 
Mexican ^^^ imprisoned by one of his officers, Gen- 
affairs gj.^;[ Hucrta. Shortly afterwards Madero 

was brutally murdered. Huerta was declared Presi- 

^^ Other legislation of a reforai nature was passed under 
Wilson. A bill was passed regulating the importation and use 
of injurious or habit-fonning drugs. (Pure food acts, for the 
regulation and sale of foodstuffs, had been urged and passed by 
Congress during Roosevelt's administrations.) Laws were passed 
with a view to the development of Alaska through the building of 
a railroad owned and operated by the government; while provi- 
sions were made for the leasing of coal lands in that gTeat 
Territory. 



MEXICAN AFFAIRS 



363 



dent, but Taft refused to recognize his govern- 
ment. Wilson also refused to recognize Huerta ; and, 
when the former supporters of Madero rose in 
revolt, the President determined to pursue a waiting 
policy. 

In the meantime the majority of Americans hav- 




Reproduced by permission 1 he PliiLnlclpliii ( Minnicrcial Museuiii 

ROLLING STRUCTURAL STEEL, PENCOYD IRON WORKS, PHILADELPHIA COUNTY 

Rolling structural steel. The powerful rollers are cooled by sprays of water. In 
1913 over 23,000,000 tons of steel products were produced in the United States. 

ing property interests in Mexico urged recognition 
of Huerta as the man most likely to keep order in that 
country. President Wilson refused for two principal 
reasons : first, he maintained that Huerta had seized 
the government by violent means ; and, second, that 
as the majority of the Mexican people had been held 



364 RECENT EVENTS 

in subjection under the rule of a few for hundreds 
of years, ojjposition to Huerta's usurpation of 
power would best help develop this majority, esti- 
mated by the President as ^'eighty per cent of the 
population. ' ' 

In April, 1914, some United States sailors were 
arrested by Mexican officials in Tampico. They were 
soon released ; but a salute to the American flag was 
demanded by Eear-Admiral Mayo. This was re- 
fused. Marines were landed at Vera Cruz and a 
conflict ensued in which nineteen of the marines were 
killed. The United States troops were victorious 
and held possession of the city for a period of six 
months. 

All through this period when American interests 
in Mexico were suffering President Wilson was mak- 
ing extraordinary efforts to avoid armed interven- 
tion. He endeavored to assure the Mexican people 
of the good intentions of the United States towards 
all the southern republics by calling together repre- 
sentatives from Argentina, Brazil, and Chile to 
deliberate with commissioners from the United 
States on Mexican affairs. Disorder, however, 
continued in Mexico. Property and even the lives 
of American citizens and of other foreigners were 
sacrificed in the conflict between the followers of 
Huerta, on the one hand, and the ''Constitution- 
alists,'' on the other. 

Huerta was finally overthrown by the latter party 
under the leadership of Carranza, Villa, and others. 
These leaders, in turn, disagreed, and civil war broke 
out afresh. In the latter part of 1915, Carranza 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 365 

gained the upper hand and received recognition from 
the United States. Villa, however, continued in in^ 
surrection. In 1916 he crossed the border at Colum- 
bus, New Mexico, and attacked and killed United 
States citizens and soldiers. By arrangement with 
Carranza and the de facto Mexican Government, 
United States forces took up the pursuit of Villa and 
his band into Mexican territory. 

In August, 1914, the greatest war of all history 
broke out in Europe. This conflict, like the conflict 
which overturned Europe in the days of 

The 

Jefferson and Madison, involved and European 

War 

violated the rights of neutrals on the seas. 
The Allied Powers, on the one hand, and the Central 
Powers, on the other, attempted to crush the com- 
merce and trade of their opponents. United States 
shipping and mails were held up on the high seas by 
British warships ; and American lives were lost 
through the torpedoing of passenger vessels by 
German submarines. 

Of the offences against neutral rights, those 
charged to the Central Powers were the more serious, 
because of the loss of lives involved. Through sev- 
eral months of negotiations President Wilson strove 
to keep this country out of the war. Many able 
Americans, among them ex-President Roosevelt, ex- 
pressed the view that the President had not been 
sufficiently decisive in his treatment of the submarine 
issue. Others, including his former Secretary of 
State, William Jennings Bryan, believed that he was 
taking too firm a stand for neutral rights. For the 



366 



RECENT EVENTS 




J 



Permission of The Philadelphia Commercial Museum 

A high-power wireless station at Ganiboa, Canal Zone. The towers at this 
station are 600 feet high and have regular communication with Arlington, Virginia, 
and with San Francisco, California. 

latter reason, Mr. Bryan resigned from tlie Cabinet. 
On the other hand, ex-President Taft, although op- 
posing President Wilson's domestic policies, urged 



THE NATIONAL PREPAREDNESS ISSUE 367 

support of the President in his conduct of foreign 
relations. 

On April 19, 1916, upon further news of the 
torpedoing of passenger sliips without warning and 
the consequent loss of American life, the President 
felt compelled to send an ultimatum to Germany to 
the effect that her policy of torpedoing passenger 
vessels must be modified, if friendly relations be- 
tween Germany and the United States were to 
continue. 

Prior to these international troubles. President 
Wilson had expressed opposition to any marked in- 
creases in the military and naval forces of the United 
States. Later, the possibility of interven- 

' / '^ The National 

tion m Mexico and m the countries border- "Prepared- 
ing on the Caribbean Sea, together with 
the possibility of a failure to come to an agree- 
ment with some of the nations of Europe, caused the 
President to change his view. ^'Preparedness'' 
for war became, therefore, a . matter which the 
President urged in a special message to Congress 
in 1915. 

Some of the Democratic leaders in both Houses, 
together with a number of the representatives and 
senators of both parties, were inclined to oppose the 
'^ preparedness" plans proposed by the President 
and his Secretary of War, Lindley M. Garrison. The 
President did not insist on any special plan, provided 
the increase in military effectiveness was secured. 
Congress refused to accept the plans of Garrison, and 
the latter resigned from the Cabinet. Thereupon the 



368 RECENT EVENTS 

President appointed Newton D. Baker, of Ohio, as 
Garrison's successor.^ ^ 

To the teacher: There are a great number of interesting 
questions pertaining to this modern period whose "merits and 
consequences have not yet passed into history," or ^Yith regard to 
which no final verdict has been reached. A few of these points 
may be brought up for discussion, and some of them are: the 
construction of the Panama Canal and the proposal to pay 
Colombia $25,000,000 because of her loss of the State of Panama; 
the commission form of government ; the initiative and referendum ; 
woman suffrage; the development of Alaska; the extension of the 
parcels post; Federal aid in building a merchant marine; govern- 
ment ownei-ship of railroads; pure food laws; the prohibition 
movement. 

Some of these' subjects are, perhaps, too difficult for extended 
reading or discussion; but brief oral explanations Avill convey some 
idea of their nature and scope. This is especially true of those 
subjects which have some measure of local interest. 

In this volume it is impossible to give a complete list of 
I'eference works on the subject of United States histoiy. It is 
extremely difficult to give a good " selection list." Consequently 
it has been deemed advisable, from time to time, in the body of the 
text, to suggest books for reference in reading. Later volumes 
are, as a rule, preferable to the older ones; although the work of 
Parkman, for instance, cannot be said to have been displaced. 
The ten-volume history of the United States by Wiley and Rines 
has especial value to the teacher because of the verbatim publica- 
tion in its pages of a large number of historic documents, and its 
very full reference to source material. An encyclopaedia is ex- 
tremely useful, especially one which gives particular emphasis to 
the subject of American history and bio.oTaphy. Poole's Index 
to Reviews is a help towards the study of recent events through 
the medium of magazine articles. 

" Robert Lansing, of New York, had been appointed Secretary 
of State to succeed Secretary Bi-yan. 



I 



117 Longitude 107 




APPENDIX A 

The India-ns of North America 

It is interesting and important to know something 
about the people living in North America before 
Europeans supplanted them in the possession of the 
continent. 

For a great many years scholars have tried to 
account for the origin of the American Indian ; but 
no one can yet say for a certainty whence he came or 
how long he was living on these shores before Colum- 
bus landed in the West Indies or Cabot in what is now 
the Dominion of Canada. 

We learn something of the Indian and of his char- 
acteristics through reading the history of the Avhite 
settlers from the time of Raleigh's colony at Roanoke 
Island to the uprising of the Sioux Indians, nearly 
three hundred years later. 

During this time the advance of the whites forced 
the Indian back farther and farther: first into the 
forests of the Alleghanies ; then back to the prairies 
of the Middle West ; and, finally, from both the west 
eastward and the east westward to their last stand on 
the watershed of the Pocky Mountains. 

The happiness and the very life of the Indian de- 
pended upon the wild or natural condition of the 
country. He did not adapt himself readily to the 
ways of the white man. AVhen the forest was cut 
down and the land was brought under cultivation, and 



n APPENDIX A 

when to\vns were built up, the Indian disappeared. 
Although, in many cases, his title or claim to the land 
was bought by the whites, the tribes resented steady 
encroachment of the latter upon the country they had 
hunted upon for many generations. 

In a few instances only did a few Indians, or, 
perhaps, a tribe, endeavor to acquire the civilization 




MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAL INDIAN STOCKS, WITH SOME OF THE EASTERN TRIBES WHICH 
WERE PROMINENTLY CONNECTED WITH EARLi' COLONIAL HISTORY 

of the white invader ; and in those instances, they were 
not allowed to develop as they had begun. The 
whites were too eager to secure their land. This 
story of the white man's greed for the land of the 
Indian is not a pleasant chapter in our history. On 
the other hand, the majority of the Indians fought 
against the white invader in such fashion as to make 
it impossible for the white settlers to forgive or forget 



THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA iii 

them. The latter came to regard the Indians as all 
alike in being treacherous and cruel. 

Yet, if the Indian tribes had not hated each other 
with what was sometimes a more terrible hatred than 
the hatred they felt for the whites, the latter would 
have had a far more difficult struggle to gain control 
of the soil of America. In their wars the Indian was 
often a faithful friend against a common foe ; but he 
was always a cruel enemy. His warfare did not spare 
women and children ; and the captives were usually 
reserved for the most frightful torture. 

The North American Indian derived the name of 




A WAMPUM PEACE BELT 



Here is represented the Indian idea of a treaty as worked out by them in "wampum," 
a name given to certain shell-beads used as money. 

"Ked Man" from the bronze or copper color of his 
skin. His hair was straight and black, and he 
dressed in the rudest sort of clothing. He lived in 
the open, or in wigwams and "long houses." His 
weapons were largely of stone, and he used clubs, 
tomahawks, and bows and arrows. In war, Indians 
13 referred to fight singly or in small groups ; and they 
stole upon the enemy or else lay in wait for him. His 
sight and hearing were almost as keen as that of lower 
animals. 

The Indian man was, first of all, a warrior. He 
disdained work and left that for the women. The 
latter, therefore, not only cooked and sewed, but they 



iv APPENDIX A 

planted, cultivated, and gathered the crops of corn, 
tobacco, beans, and other things. 

Unlike the natives of Central and South America, 
the North American tribes had very little political 
organization which might be called a government. 
The accompanying map gives, in outline, the various 
^^ nations,'^ as they were sometimes called. There 
were large divisions, such as the Algonquins and the 
Iroquois. These were composed of various tribes; 
and the tribes were, in turn, composed of clans. These 
were ruled by chiefs or sachems. The warriors owned 
their weapons and gloried in their trophies, such as 
the scalps of foes slain in battle ; but other property 
was held in common.^^ 

^ To the teacher : An excellent and extended account of all 
the American Indians and of their supposed origin may be found 
in Avery's " History of the United States." There are many 
stories of Indian life and adventure, of which the most popular 
are the novels of James Fenimore Cooper and William Gilmore 
Simms. 



APPENDIX B 

The Declaration of Independence in Congress, July 4, 1776 

a declaration by the representatives of the united states 
of america, in congress assembled 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
them with another, and to assume, among- the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of 
mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel 
them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain un- 
alienable rights; that among- these are life, liberty, and the pursuit 
of happiness. That, to secure these rights, g-overnments are insti- 
tuted among' men, deriving- their just powers from the consent of 
the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes 
destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to 
abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation 
on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to 
them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. 
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established 
should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accord- 
ingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed 
to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by 
abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a 
long train of abuses and usurpations,, pursuing invariably the same 
object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, 
it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, 
and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has 
been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the 
necessity which constrains them to alter their foraier systems of 
government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct 
object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : 



vi APPENDIX B 

He lias refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the 
right of representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to 
them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for oppos- 
ing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time, after such dissolutions, to 
cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, inca- 
pable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their 
exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime exposed to all the 
dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; 
for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of for- 
eigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, 
and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing 
his assent to laws for establishing judiciaiy powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure 
of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; 
giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of anued troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from pmiishment for 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE vii 

any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of 
these States : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving" us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by 
jnry: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
offences : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbor- 
ing province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and 
fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection and waging war against us. 

He has plundered .our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our 
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mer- 
cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their countiy, to become the execu- 
tioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their 
hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merci- 
less Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistin- 
guished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for 
redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been 
answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character 
is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to 
be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 



viii APPENDIX B 

We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their 
legislature to extend an nnwaiTantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and 
magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our 
common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would 
inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, 
too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our 
separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies 
in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme 
Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the 
name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, 
solemnly publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain 
is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and inde- 
pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace^ 
contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and 
thing-s which independent States may of right do. And, for the 
support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, 
our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

John Hancock. 



New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartletp, William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert 
Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey.— Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ix 

Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin 
Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George 
Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. 

Delaware. — Cesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean. 

Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. 

Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Francis 
LiGHTFOOT Lee, Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John 
Penn. 

South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward^ 
Thomas Lynch, Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. — Button Gwinnett,"Lyman Hall, George Walton, 



APPENDIX C 

The Constitution of the United States 

We, the people of the Uiaited States, iii order to form a more 
perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro- 
vide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and 
secure the blessing-s of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of 
America. 

Article I 

Section I. All legislative powei^ herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of 
a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be com- 
posed of members chosen every second year by the people of the 
several States, and the eleetoi-s in each State shall have the quali- 
fications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
State Legislature. 

2. No person shaU be a Representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several States which may be included within this Union, 
according to their respective numbers, which shall be detemiined 
by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
bound to service for a tenn of years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
shall be made within three years after the fii*st meeting* of the 
Congress of the United States, and within eveiy subsequent term 
of ten yeai^, in such a manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
thousand, but eacli State shall have at least one Representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hamp- 
shire shall be entitled to choose 8 ; Massachusetts, S ; Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, 1 ; Connecticut, 5 ; New York, 6 ; New 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi 

Jersey, 4 ; Pennsylvania, 8 ; Delaware, 1 ; Maryland, 6 ; Virginia, 
10 ; North Carolina, 5 ; South Carolina, 5, and Georgia, 3/ 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker 
and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be com- 
posed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature 
thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class 
at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the 
expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen eveiy 
second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive 
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting 
of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or 
when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to tiy all impeach- 
ments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or 
affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried the 
Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted with- 
out the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but 
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

^ See Article XIV, Amendments. 



xii APPENDIX C 

Section IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding 
elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in 
each State by the Legislature thereof; but the CongTess may at any 
time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places 
of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in eA'ery year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday of December, unless 
they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of 
each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number 
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel 
the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such 
penalties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may detenuine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the con- 
currence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may 
in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the 
members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, with- 
out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall re- 
ceive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, 
and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in 
all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privi- 
leged from arrest during their attendance af the session of their 
respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; 
and for any speech or debate in either House they shall not be. 
questioned in any other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the 
authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or 
the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such 
time; and no person holding any office under the United States 
shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 

Section VIL 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 

in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or 
concur with amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- 
tives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented 
to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign 
it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that House 
in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at 
large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such 
reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the 
bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved 
by two-thirds of that House it shall become a law. But in all such 
cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and 
nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any 
bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not 
be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
(except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the 
President of the United States; and before the same shall take 
effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall 
be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representa- 
tives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case 
of a bill. 

Section VIII. The Congress shall have power : 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to 
pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general 
welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises 
shall be uniform throughout the United States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 



xiv APPENDIX C 

6. To jDrovide for the punishment of counterfeiting the secu- 
rities and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post-oflQces and post-roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive 
rights to their resj)ective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

10. To define and punish j)iracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning cai3tures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support annies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer tenn than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land and naval forces ; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insuiTections, and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reselling to the States 
respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of 
training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress ; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, be- 
come the seat of the Government of the United States, and to 
exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent o£ 
the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the 
erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful 
buildings; and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section IX. 1. The migTation or importation of such pei-sons 
as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, 
shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each 
l^erson. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor 
shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, 
or i^ay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement 
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
shall be j)ublished from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; 
and no perscin holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
ment, office, or title of any kind Whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign state. 

Section X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, 
or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver 
coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, 
ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the CongTess, lay any 
impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control o£ 
the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congi^ess, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter 
into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a 



xvi APPENDIX C 

foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

Article II 
Section I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President 
chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number 
of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled 
in. the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
appointed an elector. 

3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number 
of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
sealed to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, 
in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electoi-s appomted; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have 
an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the 
said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this 
purpose shalP consist of a member or members from two-thirds of 
the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person 
having the greatest number of votes of the electoi-s shall be the 
Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice- 
President.] ^ 

^ This clause is superseded by Article XII, Amendments. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvii 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the elec- 
tors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day 
shall be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person 
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thiiiy-tive years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, 
and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, 
death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- 
President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and 
such officer shall act accordingly, imtil the disability be removed 
or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services 
a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the 
United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take 
the following oath or affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or 
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, presei^ve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Section II. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief 
of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia 
of the several States, when called into the actual service of the 
United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the 
principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any 
subject relating to the duties of their resj^ective offices, and he shall 
have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 



xviii APPENDIX C 

officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but 
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of depaiiments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by gTanting commis- 
sions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall judge necessaiy and ex- 
pedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, 
or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with 
respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and 
other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully 
executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section IV. The President, Vice-President, and all civil 
officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on im- 
peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors. 

Article III 

Section I. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
Vested m one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, 
both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their 
sen-ices a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their 
continuance in office. 

Section IL 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases 
in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a 
party; to controversies betAveen two or more States; between a 
State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different 
States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under 
grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
regulations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury; and snch trial shall be held in the State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within 
any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress 
may by law have directed. 

Section III. 1. Treason against the United States shall con- 
sist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person snail be con- 
victed of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the 
same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment 
of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

Article IV 

Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the 
manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, 
and the effect thereof. 

Section II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to 
all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdic- 
tion of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such sen^ice or labor, 
but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such sendee 
or labor may be due. 

Section III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within 



XX APPENDIX C 

the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be fomied by 
the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the 
consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of 
the CongTess. 

2. The CongTess shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 

Section IV. The United States shall guarantee to every 
State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall 
protect each of them against invasion ; and, on application of the 
Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be 
convened), against domestic violence. 

Article V 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, 
on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of 
this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths 
of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, 
as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by 
the CongTess : Provided^ that no amendment which may be made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in 
any manner affect the first and fourth clauses of the ninth section 
of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall 
be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

Article VI 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before 
the adoption of this Constitution shall be aS valid against the 
United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every 
State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws 
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxi 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and 
the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive 
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this 
Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 

Article VII 

The ratification of the Conventioais of nine States shall bo 
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the 
States so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States 
present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Indepen- 
dence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, 
President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS 
Nathaniel Gorham, 
RuFus King. 

CONNECTICUT 
William Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK 
Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY 

William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 



PENNSYLVANIA 
Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 

DELAWARE 

George Reed, 
Gunning Bedford, 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND 
James McHenry, 
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
Daniel Carroll. 



APPENDIX C 



VIRGINIA 
John Blair, 
James Madison. 

NORTH CAROLINA 

William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 



SOUTH CAROLINA 
John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA 
William Few^ 
Abraham Baldwin. 



Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

Article I 

Congress shall make no law respecting' an establishment of 
religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the 
freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peace- 
ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
grievances. 

Article II 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear anns shall 
not be infringed. 

Article III 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

Article IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable 
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing 
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor 
shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in 
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal 
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use without just compensation. 



xxiv AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

Article \I 

In all criminal prosecutionSj the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedj^ and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district 
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed 
of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted 
with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for 
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of 
counsel for his defence. 

Article VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the 
common law. 

Article VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
posed, nor cruel" and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Article X 

The i^owers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively', or to the people. 

Article XI 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

Article XII 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION xxv 

shall not be aninliabitaiit oi' the same State with themselves; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and 
in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they 
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and 
of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the nnmber of 
votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
sealed to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, 
in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certiticates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person 
having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors apj^ointed; and if no person have such majority, then from 
the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three on 
the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representa- 
tives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds 
of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose 
a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person having 
the gTcatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice- 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed; and if no jjerson have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the 
Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the 
whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible 
to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Article XIII 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject 
to their jurisdiction. 



xxvi AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

2. CongTess shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

Akticle XIV 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or 
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. 
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
for President and Vice-President of the United States, Represen- 
tatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, 
or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- 
tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such State. 

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, 
civil or militaiy, under the United States, or under any State, 
who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, 
or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State 
Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid and 
comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of 
two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for pajTuent of pensions and 
bounties for sendees in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of in- 
surrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION xxvii 

the loss or emancipation, of any slave; but all such debts, obliga- 
tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Article XV 

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce the provisions of 
this article by appropriate legislation. 

Article XVI 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on 
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or 
enumeration. 

Article XVII 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six 
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each 
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most 
numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in 
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs 
of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the Legislature 
of any State may empower the executive thereof to make tem- 
porary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election 
as the Legislature may direct. 

[This Article replaces the provision in Article I, Section III, of 
the Constitution for the choosing of Senators by the Legislaturas.] 

Ratification of the Constitution 

The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States 
in the following order : 

Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 
1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, Januaiy 2, 1788; 
Connecticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; 



xxviii AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New 
Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 25, 1788; New York. 
July 26, 1788; North Carolina, November 21, 1789; Rhode Island, 
May 29, 1790. 

Ratification of the Amendments 

I to X inclusive were declared in force December 15, 1791; 
XI was declared in force January 8, 1798; XII was declared in 
force September 25, 1804; XIII was proclaimed December 18, 
1865; XIV was proclaimed July 28, 1868; XV was proclaimed 
March 30, 1870; XVI was proclaimed February 25, 1913; XVII 
was proclaimed May 31, 1913. 



APPENDIX U 



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APPENDIX E 



Table of States and Territories 



Name 



Origin of Name 






xn 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire . . . . 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

District of Columbia 

Alaska 

Hawaii 



In honor of Lord Delaware. . . . 

Penn's woodland 

From the Island of Jersey 

In honor of George II 

Indian — long river 

Indian — at the great hill 

In honor of Henrietta Maria, 

wife of Charles I 

In honor of Charles II 

From Hampshire, England. . . . 
In honor of Queen Elizabeth.. . 
In honor of the Duke of York. . 

In honor of Charles II 

Dutch— Rood (Red) Island, or, 

from the Isle of Rhodes 

French — green mountains 

Indian — probably hunting land 

Indian — crooked river 

Indian — beautiful river 

In honor of Louis XIV 

From the word "Indian" 

Indian — great river 

From name of river and Indian 

confederacy 

Indian — ^here we rest 

The main land 

Indian — muddy river. . 

Indian — after its main river. . . 

Indian — great sea 

Spanish — flowery 

Indian — name of a tribe or 

confederacy 

Indian — meaning doubtful. . . . 
Indian — probably gathering 

waters 

Spanish — from an old romance. 

Indian — cloudy water. 

Meaning doubtful 

Indian — meaning doubtful. . . . 

From Virginia 

Spanish — snowy mountains. . . . 

Indian — shallow water 

Spanish — red or ruddy 

Indian — the allies 

Indian — the allies 

Spanish — montana, a mountain 

In honor of Washington 

Indian — gem of the mountains 

Indian — broad plains 

Indian — mountain home 

Indian — fine country 

From Mexico 

Meaning doubtful 

From Columbus 

Indian — great, or main land. . . 
Given by the natives 



fl787 
1787 
1787 
1788 
1788 
1788 



^U788 

S [1788 
- 11788 
-g 1 1788 
^ 11788 
■^11789 

11790 
. . .1791 
. . .1792 
. . .1796 
. . . 1803 
. ..1812 
. . .1816 
. . .1817 



.1818 
.1819 
.1820 
.1821 
.1836 
.1837 
.1845 



1845 
1846 

1848 
1850 
1858 
1859 
1861 
1863 
1864 
1867 
1876 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1896 
1907 
1912 
1912 



2,050 
45,215 

7,815 

59,475 

4,990 

8,315 

12,210 
30,570 
9,305 
42,450 
49,170 
52,250 

1,250 
9,565 
40,400 
42,050 
41,060 
48,720 
36,350 
46,810 

56,650 
52,250 
33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,915 
58,680 

265,780 
56,025 

56,040 

158,360 
83,365 
96.080 
82,080 
24,780 

110,700 
77,510 

103,925 
70,795 
77,650 

146,080 
69,180 
84,800 
97,890 
84,970 
70,430 

122,580 

113,020 
70 

577,390 
6.740 



West' 




HAWA 
ISLAJ 



INDEX 



A, B, C Conference (Argentina, 
Brazil, Chile), 364 

Abolitionists, attacked, 248; at- 
tack Lincoln, 256 (fn.); attitude 
of Lincoln towards, 256; burn 
Constitution, 241; comparison 
with Emancipationists, 257 (fn.) ; 
first journal of, 242 (fn.); on 
secession, 277 (fn.) 

Acadia (Nova Scotia) captured by 
Enghsh, 89 

Adams, Abigail, letter to John 
Adams, 129; sketch of, 128 

Adams, Charles Francis II, 284 
(fn.), 285 (fn.) 

Adams, John, death of, 224; letter 
to Abigail Adams, 129; suggests 
Washington as commander-in- 
chief, 124; President, 170 et seq.; 
sketch of, 170 

Adams, John Quincy, elected Pres- 
ident, 215; letter to his father, 
129; sketch of, 216 

Adams, Samuel, attempted arrest 
of, 121; opposes Parhamentary 
taxation, 112; proposes colonial 
union, 113; sketch of, 124 

Agriculture, early, 177; see also 
development 

Aguinaldo, capture of, 349 

Alabama, the, career of, 328; 
claims concerning, 341 

Alamance, battle of, 116 

Alamo, the, 233 

Alaska, development of, 326 (fn.) ; 
purchase of, 322 

Albemarle, settlement of, 67 

Algiers, war with, 181 

Algonquin Indians^ 88 

Alien and sedition laws, 172 

Allen, Ethan, 123 

Amendments, constitutional, the 
first ten, 161; 13th, 317; 14th, 
319; 15th, 320; 16th, 357; 17th, 
358; (Appendix C) 



America, discovery of, 8; naming 
of, 8 

American party, established, 252 

Anderson, Major Robert, 282 

Andros, Governor Edmund, 81; 
makes treaty with Iroquois In- 
dians, 88 

Anaesthetics, discovery of, 265 

Antietam, battle of, 302 

Anti-trust laws, 254; 362 

Appomattox, scene of Lee's surren- 
der, 316 

Arbitration, court of, 358; with 
Great Britain, 341 

Archer, Captain Gabriel, 34, 35 

Arkansas admitted to Union, 229 

Arnold, Benedict, in campaign 
against Burgovne, 138; sketch 
of, 151 

Arthur, Chester A., becomes Presi- 
dent, 333; sketch of, 333; Vice- 
President, 332 

Assembly, the first representative, 
28 

Astoria established, 186 

Austin, Moses, 232 

Austin, Stephen F., 232 

B 

Bacon, Nathaniel, leader of rebel- 
lion in Virginia, 78, 79 

Baker, Newton D., 368 

Balboa crosses Isthmus of Panama, 
14 

Ball game, the first (?), 52 

Baltimore, defence of, 196-197; 
first blood shed in War of Seces- 
sion, 283 

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad char- 
tered, 263 

Bank, the United States, estab- 
Hshed, 164; overthrown, 222- 
223; re-established, 204; sub- 
stitutes for, 227 

Banks, national, 332 (fn.); postal 
savings, 358 



INDEX 



Barbary States, difficulties with, 

181 
Barney, Commodore, 195, 196 (fn.) 
Barre, Isaac, 128. 
Barry, John, 143 
Beauregard, General P. G. T., at 

Bull Run, 287; at Fort Sumter, 

282; in western campaign, 293 

et seq. 
Beecher, Henry Ward, 250 
Bell, John, 262 
Bennington, battle of, 137 
Berkeley, Governor William, rule 

in Virginia, 78 
Berkeley, Lord John, Proprietor 

of Carolina, 66; Proprietor of 

New Jersey, 57 
Birnev, James G., 232 
Black Drink, 229 (fn.) 
Black Hawk, 229 (fn.) 
Bladensburg, battle of, 195 
Blaine, James G., 334 
Blockade of the Southern coast, 

290 
Bloody Marsh, battle of, 74 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, interference 

of, 189; intervention, 171; sells 

Louisiana, 173 
Bon Homme Richard, the, 143 
Book, the first printed in the colo- 
nies, 52; title-page of, 47 
Boone, Daniel, 167 
Boston evacuated by the British, 

125; fire in, 325; rioting at, in 

1770, 116; settlement of, 42 
Bouquet, Colonel Henry, 100 (fn.) 
"Boxers" in China, 349 
Braddock, Major-General Edward, 

95 
Bradford, William, challenge of 

Canonicus, 52; On communal 

system, 51 ; signature and sketch 

of, 38 
Bragg, General Braxton, 294 et 

seq. 
Brandywine, battle of, 136 
Breckinridge, John C, 261 
Brent, Margaret, signature of, 42 
Brewster, Wilham, signature and 

sketch of, 38 
Brock, General, 192 



Brooke, John M., inventor, 265' 
plans first ironclad, 296 

Brookfield, attack on, 82 

Brooklyn Heights captured by 
British, 131, 132 

Brooks, Preston, attacks Sumner, 
251 

Brown, Alexander, historical re- 
searches of, 23 (fn.) 

Brown, John, attempt to incite 
insurrection, 259 ; denounced by 
Lincoln, 259 (fn.); in Kansas, 
250 

Bryan, William Jennings, nomina- 
ted for President, 343, 351, 356; 
resigns from cabinet, 365 

Bryant, William Cullen, 267 

Buchanan, James, elected Presi- 
dent, 253; on secession, 276 

Buena Vista, battle of, 235 

Bull Run, first battle of, 287; 
second battle of, 301 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 123 

Burgesses, the Virginia House of, 
established, 28 

Burgoyne, campaign of, 137, 138 

Burke, Edmund, speech on con- 
ciliation, 128 

Burnside, campaign of, 303 

Burr, Aaron, duel with Hamilton, 
184; Vice-President, 173 

Bushnell, David, 152 

Bushy Run, battle of, 99 

Butler, General B. F., at New Or- 
leans, 294; in Virginia, 312 

C 

Cabal, the Conway, 145 (fn.) 
Cabinet, the first Federal, 160 
Cable, the Atlantic, 265 
Cabot (Cab'-ot), John, claims of 
for English, 53, 57; discovery 
of North America, 8, 9 ; reward 
for discovery, 13; second voy- 
age, 13; sketch of, 8; views 
of, 1 
Calendar, old style and new, 20 
Calhoun, John C, death of, 245; 
sketch of, 221; Vice-President, 
215, 217; views of, 240 



INDEX 



California admitted to Union, 239- 
240 ; development of, 245 

Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Balti- 
more, 59 

Calvert, George, first Lord Balti- 
more, 59 

Calvert, Leonard, leads colony of 
Maryland, 59 

Camden, battle of, 145 

Canada, boundary line, 243 

Canal, the Erie, 226; the Panama, 
constructed, 352; treaty con- 
cerning, 243, 352 

Canonicus, 52 

Cannon, Joseph G., 339 (fn.) 

Capital and labor, 330 

Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, 
sketch of, 263 

Carteret, Sir George, Proprietor, 
57 

Cartier (Car-tya), explorer, 35 

Catholics, Roman, found colony 
of Maryland, 68, 71 

Cavaliers, emigration of, 77, 78 

Census, 176 

Cessions, state, 156, 157 

Champlain, Samuel de, 87 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 305 

Chanco, Indian convert, 76 

Charles I, controversy with Mas- 
sachusetts Bay Colony, 44; per- 
secution of Puritans, 42 

Charles II, relations with Penn, 
63; secures New Amsterdam, 
57 

Charleston, attacked by French 
and Spanish, 89; attacked by 
Spanish, 71; British defeated at, 
127; founded, 69; surrenders to 
British, 144 

Charter, see beginnings of Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut 

Cherokees, dispute with, 219; war 
with, 71, 99 

Chesapeake Bay, British invasion 
of, 195 ; first settlement in, 20 

Chesapeake, the, 190, 202 

Chicago, early settlement, 242; 
fire in, 325; strike at, 343 

Chickamauga, battle of, 309 



Children in Colonial times, 101, 

104, 105, 106-107 
China, rebelhon in, 349; United 

States attitude towards, 350 
Civil Rights Bill, 319 
Civil Service Reform, 333 
Claiborne, in Maryland, 60 
Clark, George Rogers, conquest 

of the Northwest, 140-143 
Clark, WiUiam, expedition of, 185, 

186 
Clarke, partisan leader, 145 
Clay, Henry, advocates tariff, 
205; death of, 245; Lincoln's 
eulogy of, 256; sketch of, 232; 
the "Great Pacificator," 221; 
urges war with Great Britain, 
191 
Clayton Anti-trust Act, 362 
Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 243, 251 
Clermont, the, sketch of, 207 
Cleveland, Grover, elected Presi- 
dent, 334; re-elected, 339; sketch 
of, 334 
Clinton, De Witt, 226 
Clinton, General, British comman- 
der, 139 
Clinton, George, Vice-President, 

189 
Coinage, decimal system, 176 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 300, 313 
Colonial life and customs, 100-108; 

self-government, 100 
Colonization of negroes, 268-269 
Colony, ''The Lost," 18; fate of, 

84, 85 
Colorado admitted to the Union, 

335 
Columbia, University of, founded, 

180 
Columbus, Christopher, before 
Queen Isabella, 6; called "Ad- 
miral of Mosquito Land," 12; 
discovers New World, 6; statue 
of, 3 
Commission, Federal Trade, 362; 

Interstate Commerce, 355 
Communal System, the, at James- 
town, 21, 22, 26; at Plymouth, 
51; see, also, 34 
Compact, the Mayflower, 40 



INDEX 



Company, the London, character 
of, 22 ; plans settlement in Amer- 
ica, 19; the Plymouth, 19 

Compromise, efforts at, in 1861, 
277; the Missouri, established, 
211, 239, 248; of 1850, 240; 
tariff and nullification, 221 

Compromises, constitutional, 159, 
164 

Concihation, British efforts at, 
151; Burke on, 128 

Concord, fight at, 122 

Confederacy, early relations with 
Federal government, 280-282; 
resources of, 285-286, 314; seeks 
foreign recognition, 289; the 
Southern, 279 el seq. 

Confederation, New England, 80; 
of States, 154 et seq. 

Congress, Continental, driven 
from Philadelphia, 136; first 
Continental, 121; second Conti- 
nental, 124 

Connecticut founded, 46, 47 

Conservation of natural resources, 
177, 359 

Constantinople, capture of, by 
Turks, 3 

Constellation, engagements with 
French vessels, 171 (fn.) 

Constitution, engagements of the, 
201 

Constitution, amendments to. Ap- 
pendix C; articles of, Appendix 
C; formation of, 158, 160; rati- 
fication of, 160; State provisos, 
160 (fn.) 

Constitutional Union party, 262 

Convention, the Constitutional, 
158, 160 

Cornstalk, Indian chief, 99 

Cornwallis, General, in New Jer- 
sey, 134; in South, 147 et seq.; 
surrender of, 149 

Cortes conquers Mexico, 35 

Cotton, in War of Secession, 273, 
286, 290 

Cotton-gin, the, 177 

Cowpens, battle of, 147 

Crater, battle of the, 314 

Crawford, W. H., 215 



Creek Indians, 194 (fn.), 203 
Crockett, David, 233 
Croghan, Major George, 202 
Cromwell, Oliver, action in Mary- 
land, 61 
Cross Keys, battle of, 299 
Cuba, conditions in, 344; discovery 

of, 6; freed, 348 
Currency Bill, the Glass-Owen 362 
Curtis, George WiUiam, 233 (fn.) 
Custer, General, death of, 326 
Customs, social, in colonial times, 
103 



Da Gama (da Ga'-ma), Vas'-co, 4 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 26 

Dallas, George, Vice-President, 

231 
Dare, Virginia, 18 
Davis, Jefferson, capture of, 317; 

in Black Hawk War, 229 (fn.); 

sketch of, 279 
Dawes, William, ride of, 121 
Dearborn, General, 193 
De Ayllon (daile-yone) attempts 

Spanish settlenient in North 

America, 35 
Debedeavon, The "Laughing 

King," 76 (fn.) 
Decatur, Commodore Stephen, 

sketch of, 202 
Delaware, Lord, saves Jamestown 

settlement, 24 
De Leon, Ponce (Pon'-tha da La- 
one), names Florida, 35 
Democracy, American, European 

disbehef in, 157 (fn.) 
Democratic - RepubUcan period, 

181 et seq. 
Denys (Da-ne) discovers St. Law-, 

rence, 35 
De Soto (da So-to) begins explora- 
tion in North America, 35, 36 
Detroit secured by French, 91 
Development, western, 165-168; 

207-210; 228-229; 335-337; 353 
Dewey, Commodore George, 345 
Dias, Portuguese sailor, 4 
Dingley Tariff Bill, 344 



INDEX 



Dinwiddie, Governor, challenges 
French, 92 

Discovery, list of, 12; voyages of, 
3-8 _ 

Doctrine, the Monroe, proclaimed, 
214 

Douglas, Stephen A., debates with 
Lincoln, 254-257 ; nominated 
for President, 261; proposes 
Kansas - Nebraska bill, 248; 
views of, 257 (fn.) 

Drake, Sir Francis, 16 

Dustin, Hannah, 106 

Dutch claims in New England, 45, 
46; establish New Netherland, 
53, 57; trade with Indians, 53 



Earle, Alice Morse, on colonial 
fashions, 107 

Early, General Jubal A., campaign 
of, 313 

Education, early, 180; in New 
England, 50; in Virginia, 28, 34; 
review of, 266 

El Caney, 346 

Election, disputed, 326, 330 

EHzabeth, Queen, names Virginia, 
17; signature, 13 

Emancipation as result of the war, 
328; established by Thirteenth 
Amendment, 317, 328; pro- 
claimed by Governor Dunmore, 
125; Proclamation of, by Presi- 
dent Lincoln, 303-304; see, also, 
317; sentiment for in South, 
213 

Emancipationists compared with 
abolitionists, 257 (fn.) 

Embargo Act, 188 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 267 

Ericson (Er'-ic-son), Leif, visits 
North America, 10 

Ericsson, John, constructs Moni- 
tor, 296 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 148 

Expansion beyond the Alle- 
ghanies, 85, 87; western (see 
development) 

Exploration, 35, 38; voyages of, 
14, 16 



Fairbanks, Charles W., Vice-Presi- 
dent, 353 
Fair Oaks, battle of, 298 
Fallen Timbers, battle of, 165 
Faneuil Hall, sketch of, 113 
Farragut, David G., 202; in War 

of Secession, 294 et seq. 
Fashions, colonial, 107, 108 
Federahsts assert State rights, 184; 

origin of, 159 
Ferguson, defeat of, 147 
Field, Cyrus W., 265 
Fillmore, Millard, President, 245; 

sketch of, 246 
Fisher, Sydney George, on colonial 

fashions, 107 
Fitch, John, inventor, 179 
Five Forks, battle of, 315 
Florida, first settlement in, 15; 

purchase of, 210 
Force Bill, the, 221 
Forrest, General N. B., in western 
campaigns, 295 et seq.; sketch of, 
307 
Fort Donelson captured, 292 
Fort Henry captured, 292 
Fort McHenry, defence of, 197, 

202 
Fort Mims, massacre at, 194 
Fort Pitt secured by EngUsh, 95 
Fort Stedman, 315 
Fort Sumter, attempt to supply, 

281; fired on, 282 
Fort Washington captured by 

British, 132 
France begins exploration, 15; 
deahngs with, under Adams, 
171 ; dealings with, under Wash- 
ington, 168-170; treaty with, 
138 
Frankhn, battle of, 310 
Frankhn, Benjamin, in Constitu- 
tional Convention, 158; on edu- 
cation, 266; sketch of, 155 
Frankhn, Governor William, 58 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 303 
Freedman's Bureau, 320, 322 
''Free Silver" agitation, 337, 343 
Fremont, John C, nominated for 
President, 253 



INDEX 



French and Indian Wars, 89, 97 

Friends, Society of, begin colony 
of Pennsylvania, 61; persecu- 
tion of, in New England, 81 (fn.) ; 
views of, 61, 62 

Frontenac, Coifnt, wages war 
against English, 89 

Front Royal, battle of, 299 

Fugitive Slave Law extended, 240; 
nullification of, 241 

Fuller, Margaret, 255 

Fulton, Robert, "father of steam- 
boat navigation," 179 

Fimston, General Frederick, cap- 
tures Aguinaldo, 349 (fn.) 



Gadsden purchase, 238 (fn.) 
Gage, General, at Boston, 121 
Garfield, James A., death of, 333; 
elected President, 332; sketch 
of, 332 
Garrison, Lindley M., resigns from 

cabinet, 367 
Garrison, Wilham Lloyd, attacked 

in Boston, 248, 242 (fn.), 270 
Gas, first fighting by, 226 
Gaspee, burning of, 119 (fn.) 
Gates, General, at Camden, 145; 

at Saratoga, 138 
Genet, "Citizen," 169 
George III and American democ- 
racy, 157 (fn.); interferes with 
colonial self-government, 112 
et seq. 
Georgia attacked by Spanish, 74; 
beginnings of, 72, 75; prohibits 
slavery, 73 
Germans, immigration in middle 
colonies, 99; in Georgia, 73; in 
Pennsylvania, 84 
Germantown, battle of, 136 
Gerry, Elbridge, 158 
Gettysburg, battle of, 305 
Ghent, treaty of, 197 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 36 
Glass-Owen Currency Bill, 362 
Goethals, Colonel G. W., con- 
structs Panama Canal, 352 ; 
sketch of, 353 



Gofiad, battle of, 232 

Gonzales, battle of, 232 

Gordon, General John B., 315 

Gorgas, Colonel W. C, 352 

Gorman, Arthur P., 340 

Gosnold, voyage of, 19 (fn.), 
36 

Grant, General U. S., administra- 
tions of, 322 et seq.; at Peters- 
burg, 314; attempt to renomi- 
nate, 326, 332; elected Presi- 
dent, 322; in Mexican War, 236 
(fn.); in western campaigns, 
292-295; sketch of, 323; sum- 
moned to the East, 310; Wilder- 
ness campaign, 312. 

Gray, Captain Robert, 243 

Great Bridge, battle of, 125 

Great Britain, attitude of, in War 
of Secession, 290, 291; dispute 
with, 220, 243, 244; on Alabama 
claims, 341 (fn.); treaty with, 
243; war with, 191 et seq. 

Greeley, Horace, nominated for 
President, 324; on secession, 277 
(fn.) 

Greene, General Nathanael, 145 
et seq. 

Grenville, George, British minis- 
ter, 112 

Guilford Court House, battle of, 
148 



H 



Hale, Nathan, 150 

Hamilton, Alexander, death of, 
184; opposes conspiracy, 184, 
185 (fn.); political views of, 162- 
164; sketch of, 158 

Hamilton, British Governor, 141 

Hancock, General W. S., 332 

Hancock, John, attempted arrest 
of, 121 

Hariot, Thomas, at Roanoke 
Island, 33 

Harmar, General, 165 

Harpers Ferry, capture of, 302; 
seized by John Brown, 259 

Harrison, Benjamin, elected Presi- 
dent, 335; sketch of, 335 



INDEX 



Harrison, General W. H., at River 
Thames, 194; at Tippecanoe, 
194 (fn.) ; elected President, 230; 
sketch of, 230 

Hartford Convention, 200 

Harvard founded, 50 

Harvey, Governor John, 77 

Hawaii annexed, 349 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, sketch of, 
252 

Hay, John, Secretary of State, 
349 

Hayes, Rutherford B., elected 
President, 326; sketch of, 330 

Hayne, debate with Webster, 225 

Hayti, discovery of, 6 

Henrico, first college in the New 
World, 28, 34 

Henry, Patrick, equips Clark ex- 
pedition, 141; opposes Consti- 
tution, 159; sketch of, 117; up- 
holds colonial self-government, 
114 

Henry VII equips Cabot expedi- 
tion, 8 

Herkimer, General, 138 

Hessians in the Revolution, 132 
(fn.) 

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 
258 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 148 

Hobson, Lieutenant, 346 (fn.) 

Hoe press, 264 

Holmes, Ohver Wendell, 267 

Hood, General John B., 310 

Hooker, General Joseph E., cam- 
paign of, 305 

Hooker, Thomas, views of political 
and rehgious liberty, 47 

Hopkins, Oceanus, 51 

Houston, General Samuel, 233 

Howe, General, invades middle 
States, 131, 139 (fn.) 

Hudson, Captain Henry, explora- 
tion of, 53 

Huerta, General, 362 

Huguenots, French, in South Caro- 
hna, 169 

Hull, General William, surrender 
of, 192 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 43, 45 



Illinois admitted to tJnicn, 207 

Illinois, county of, 143 

Income Tax, 337 

Independence, Declaration of, 
adopted, 130; text of. Appen- 
dix B 

India, European trade routes to, 4 

Indian Territory, 229; uprisings, 
326 

Indians, American, campaign 
against, 165; in Florida, 229 
(fn.); in Northwest, 229 (fn.); 
meaning of, 7; sketch of, Appen- 
dix A 

Indentured servants, 31, 32 

Indiana admitted to Union, 207 

Indigo, first cultivation of, 72 

Industry, progress in, 262 et seq. 

Ingraham, Nathaniel Duncan, 202; 
rescues Martin Koszta, 246 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 
355; with regard to United 
States mail, 343 

''Intolerable Acts," 119 

Invention, progress in, 262 et seq. 

Ironclad, the first, 296 

Iroquois, the Five and the Six 
Nations, 68, 88 

Irrigation in West, 350 

Isabella, Queen of Spain, 5 

"Insurgents," Republican, 360 



Jackson, Andrew, at New Orleans, 
148; attitude towards nulHfica- 
tion, 218-222; in Florida, 210; 
President, 217 e^ seq.; sketch of, 
218 

Jackson, General T. J. ("Stone- 
wall"), at Bull Run, 288; death 
of, 305; in Mexico, 236 (fn.); 
in Valley of Virginia, 299; 
sketch of, 301 

James I, first settlement under, 19, 
21 

James II annuls Massachusetts 
charter, 81 

Jamestown burned, 79 (fn.); first 
successful English settlement, 20 



INDEX 



Japan, development of, 247 

Jasper, Sergeant, 127 

Jay, John, first Chief Justice, 160; 
treaty, 170 

Jefferson, Thomas, approves seiz- 
ure of Northwest, 141; death of, 
224; draws up Declaration of 
Independence, 130; elected Pres- 
ident, 173; "father of American 
Navy," 182; lessons from life of, 
224; on education, 266; on nulli- 
fication, 172; on slavery, 212; on 
western develop nent, 168, 207 
pohtical views of, 162-164 
purchase of Louisiana, 183 
sketch of, 182 

Jesuit missionaries in New France, 
87 

Johnson, Andrew, becomes Presi- 
dent, 318; elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 317; reconstruction poli- 
cies of, 318 et seq.; sketch of, 319; 
trial of, 321 

Johnson, Governor Nathaniel, 71 

Johnson, Herschel V., 261 

Johnson, Hiram W., 363 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, 
at Shiloh, 293 

Johnston, General Joseph E., at 
Bull Run, 288; opposes McClel- 
lan, 298; surrender of, 317 

Jones, John Paul, 143; sketch of, 
143 

Jouett, John, 149 (fn.) 

July 4, significance of date, 129 

K 

Kansas, struggle over, 248 et seq. 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 248 
Kaskaskia, capture of, 141 
Kearsarge, the, duel with Alabama, 

328 
Kenton, Simon, 141 
Kentucky admitted to Union, 165 ; 

development of, 167; in War of 

Secession, 283 
Kernstown, battle of, 299 
Key, Francis Scott, 202 
Kidd, Captain, 71 
Kieft, Governor William, 54 



King, Rufus, 158 

King, William R., 246 

King's Mountain, battle of, 146 

Know-Nothing Party, 252 

Knox, Henry, 160 

Koszta, Martin, 246 

Ku-Klux Klan, 324 



Labor and capital, 330 

Labrador discovered by Cabot, 9 

Lafayette, Marquis de, in Vir- 
ginia, 148; offers services to 
America, 139; sketch of, 137; 
visit of, 224 

La Follette, Robert M., 360 (fn.) 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 195 

Lake Erie, battle of, 193 

Lake George, battle at, 95 

La Salle, Robert de, discoverer, 
104 

Laurens, Henry, helps to repel 
British invasion, 126; sketch of, 
125 

Law, Penn's "Great," 64 

Lawrence attacked, 250 

Lawton, Henry W., in Spanish 
War, 347 

Lecompton, constitution of, 
250 

Lee, General Charles, at Mon- 
mouth, 139, 140 (fn.) 

Lee, General Robert E., captures 
John Brown, 259; commands 
Army of Northern Virginia, 299 
et seq.; first northern movement, 
301 ; in Mexico, 236 (fn.) ; second 
northern movement, 305 et seq.; 
surrender of, 316 

Lee, General Stephen D., 295 

Lee, "Light Horse Harry," 174 

Lee, Richard Henry, proposes in- 
dependence, 130 

Le Moyne, first artist in America, 
85 

Leopard, the, 190 

Lewis, Meriwether, expedition of, 
185-186; sketch of, 185 

Lexington, fight at, 122 

Liberia, Repubhc of, 268 



INDEX 



Liberty, religious, in Holland, 37 ; 
in Maryland, 59, 60; in New 
Netherland, 56, 57; in Pennsyl- 
vania, 61, 63; in Rhode Island, 
45 

Liberty Party defeats Clay, 231 

Lincoln, Abraham, death of, 318; 
denounced by abolitionists, 256 
(fn.) ; efforts to colonize negroes, 
268; elected President, 262; 
inaugural adress, 280; in Black 
Hawk War, 229 (fn.); nomina- 
ted at Chicago, 260; object in 
waging war, 328 ; on John Brown 
259 (fn.); on race equahty, 257; 
on secession, 276; reconstruction 
poHcies of, 318; re-election of, 
317; sketch of, 274; views on 
slavery, 254 

Lincoln-Douglas debates, 254 

Lincoln, General, at Charleston, 
144 

Line, Mason and Dixon, 66 

Literature, American, review of, 
267, 268 

Little Belt, the, 190 

Living, modes of, in colonial times, 
102 

Locke, John, draws up "Grand 
Model," 67; on bringing up 
children, 104 

Long, Dr. Crawford W., 265 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 
sketch of, 254 

Long Island, battle of, 131 

Longstreet, General, at Gettys- 
burg, 306; in the West, 318; 
wounded, 312 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 
310 

Louisburg captured by Enghsh, 
91 ; recaptured, 95 

Louisiana admitted to Union, 199; 
named, 106, opposition to ad- 
mission, 199-200 

Louisiana Territory, opposition to, 
184; purchase, 183 

Lov/ell, James Russell, 267 

Lucas, EKza, cultivates indigo, 72; 
sketch of, 85 



M 

McClellan, General George B., 
at Antietam, 301; campaign 
against Richmond, 298; in 
Mexican War, 239 ; secures west- 
ern Virginia, 287; sketch of, 
289 

McCormick, Cyrus, inventor, 177 

McCulloch, Hugh W., 331 

McDowell, battle of, 299 

McDowell, General, at Bull Run, 
287 

McKinley, William, author of 
tariff bill, 337; death of, 351; 
elected President, 343; sketch 
of, 344 

Madero, President of Mexico, as- 
sassinated, 362 

Madison, James, elected President, 
189; in Constitutional Conven- 
tion, 158; on nullification, 172; 
sketch of, 189 

Maine admitted to Union, 211 

Maine, the, blown up, 345 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 300 

Manassas, battle of, see Bull Run 

Manila captured, 345 

Mann, Horace, 266 

Marietta, 168 

Marshall, John, appointed Chief 
Justice, 173 (fn.); in Revolu- 
tion, 175; sketch of, 219 

Marshall, Thomas R., Vice-Presi- 
dent, 361 

Maryland, and western State 
claims, 156; in War of Secession, 
283 

Massachusetts Bay Colony, 41 
et seq.; first settlement of, 39-42; 
nulhfication sentiment in, 184, 
200 

Massacre, Indian, in New Eng- 
land, 83; in Virginia, 75, 76 

Mason and Shdell, 289 

Maury, Matthew Fontaine, scien- 
tist, 265, 270; sketch of, 265 

Meade, General George G., at 
Gettysburg, 305; sketch of, 303 

Mechanicsville, battle of, 300 

Mecklenburg, Declaration of, 126 

Memphis, capture of, 294 



INDEX 



Merrimac, the, renamed Virginia, 

q.v. 
Methodist Church, 75 
Mexico, affairs in, 352 et seq.; in- 
vaded by Maximilian, 321; map 
of, 237; treaty with, 236; war 
with, 1846-1847, 234-236 
Michigan admitted to Union, 228 
Mill Springs, battle of, 294 
Missionary Ridge, battle of, 310 
Mississippi admitted to Union, 208 
Missouri admitted to Union, 211; 

in War of Secession, 283 
Mobile secured by French, 91 
Model, Locke's "Grand," 67 
Monocacy River, battle of, 313 
Monitor, the, duel of, with the Vir- 
ginia, 296 
Monmouth, battle of, 139 
Monroe Doctrine, applied by 
Roosevelt, 355 ; applied to Mex- 
ico, 321; upheld by Cleveland, 
342 
Monroe, James, Ambassador to 
France, 171; at Trenton, 135 
(fn.); elected President, 200; 
sketch of, 204 
Montcalm, Marquis de, leader of 

New France, 95, 96 
Montgomery, capital of Confeder- 
acy, 279 
Moore's Creek Bridge, battle of, 

126 
Morgan, Daniel, American leader, 
128; at Cowpens, 147; at Sara- 
toga, 138; sketch of, 147 
Morris, Gouverneur, 226 
Morris, Robert, 176 
Morristown, winter quarters, 135 
Morse, S. ¥. B., inventor, 264 
Morton, W. F. G., 266 
Moultrie, Colonel William, defend- 
er of Charleston, 126 
Mount Vernon, sketch of, 213 
"Mugwumps," 334 (fn.) 
Murfreesboro, battle of, 295 

N 

Napoleon III in relation to Mexico, 

321 
Narragansetts overthrown, 83 



Nashville, battle of, 310 

National Road, 208 

Navy, American, beginnings of, 

143 
Navy, Federal, in War of Seces- 
sion, 286 
Negroes, first importation of, 31, 
32; relations with whites, 323; 
see also slavery 
New Amsterdam, founding of, 54; 
picture of, 55; renamed New 
York, 57 
New England, naming of, 24 
New France, beginnings of, 87, 88 
New Jersey, beginnings of, 57 
New Orleans, battle of, 198; cap- 
ture of, 294 
Newspaper press associations, 264 
New Sweden founded, 58; seized 

by Dutch, 58 
New York, rioting at, in 1770, 116 
Norsemen visit North America, 10 
North America, discovery by 

Cabot, 9 
North Carolina, beginnings of, 66, 

69; joins Union, 160 (fn.) 
North Point, battle at, 196 
Nova Scotia captured by Enghsh, 

89 
Nullification by Georgia, 219; by 
Maine and Massachusetts, 220; 
doctrine of, in Kentucky and 
Virginia Resolutions, 172-173; 
in opposition to War of 1812, 
192 (fn.); in South Carolina, 
220; of Embargo Act, 188; of 
fugitive slave law, 222, 241; 
sentiment in New England, 200; 
under Jackson, 218-222; Web- 
ster on, 222 (fn.) 

O 

Oberhn College estabhshed, 180 
Oglethorpe, General James, founder 

of Georgia, 72, 74; sketch of, 72 
Ohio admitted to Union, 207 
Oklahoma, development of, 354 
"Old Ironsides," 201 
Oliver, James, inventor, 177 
Opechancanough (o-pech-an-ca'- 

no), 75, 76 



INDEX 



Ordinance of 1787, 168 
Oregon, settlement of, 244 
Orleans Territory, 199 (fn.) 
Osceola, 229 (fn.) 
Otis, James, sketch of, 115; up- 
holds colonial self-government, 
114 



Pacific, naming of, 14 

Palmer, John H., 343 

Palo Alto (Pah-lo Ahl-to), battle 
of, 235 

Palos (Pa-los), Columbus sets sail 
from, 5 

Panama, Isthmus of. Canal con- 
structed, 352; crossed by Bal- 
boa, 14; Republic of, 352; treaty 
concerning, 243, 352 

Panics, financial, attempt to pre- 
vent, 362; of 1837, 227; of 1867, 
1869, 1873, 325; of 1893, 339; 
of 1907, 356 

Parcels Post established, 358 

Parker, Alton B., nominated for 
President, 353 

Parker, Sir Peter, 127 

Parhament, the British, beginnings 
of interference in self-govern- 
ment in America, 109; naviga- 
tion acts, 109, 110 

Partisan leaders, 145 

Patroons, the Dutch, 54 

Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill, 357 

Penn, William, acquires Delaware, 
58 ; established Pennsylvania, 66 
et seq.; relations with Indians, 
63, 64; sketch of, 64 

Pennsylvania, beginnings of, 61, 
66; religious liberty in, 61, 63; 
self-government in, 64 

Pennsylvania, University of, 
founded, 180 

Pequot Indians, defeat of, 48 

Percy, George, President of Vir- 
ginia Council, 24 ; signature and 
sketch of, 24 

Perry, Captain Oliver H., on Lake 
Erie, 193 

Perry, Commodore M. C, visits 
Japan, 247 



Perryville, battle of, 294 
Petersburg, siege of, 315 
Phi Beta Kappa, first chapter, 161 
Philadelphia founded, 63 
Philip, Indian chief, 82, 83 
Philippines purchased, 348; revolt 

in, 349 
Phillips, Wendell, 256 (fn.) 
Pierce, Franklin, elected Presi- 
dent, 246; sketch of, 247 
Pike, Zebulon M., 186 (fn.) 
Pilgrim Fathers in Holland, 37, 38; 

landing at Plymouth, 39; perse- 
cution of, 37 
Pinchot, Gifford, 359 
Pinckney, C. C, 158; X, Y, Z 

protest, 171 (fn.) 
Pinckney, Charles, 158 
Pinckney, Eliza Lucas, 72, 85 
Pirates in colonial times, 71 
Pitt, William, attempt at conciha- 

tion, 151; in French and Indian 

War, 95 
Pittsburg Landing, battle of, see 

Shiloh 
Plattsburg, battle of, 195 
Plymouth, first settlement of the 

Pilgrims, 39 et seq. 
Pocahontas, descendants of, 26 

(fn.); marries John Rolfe, 25; 

rescue of Smith, 23 ; statue of, 25 
Poe, Edgar Allan, sketch of, 251 
Point Pleasant, battle of, 99 
Polk, James K., elected President, 

231; sketch of, 234 
Polo, Marco, 11 
Pontiac, Indian chief, 99; sketch 

of, 106 
Pope, General John, campaign of, 

300 
Port Republic, battle of, 299 
Porto Rico secured, 348 
Portugal, with Spain, claims New 

World, 9 
Postal Savings Banks established, 

358 
Post routes and rates, 179 
Potato introduced in Europe, 18 
Powhatan, Indian chief, 23 
''Preparedness," issue of, 367 
President, the, 190 



INDEX 



Presidential Succession Act, 334 
Presidents, table of. Appendix D 
Prevost, Sir George, 195 
Princeton, battle of, 135 
Princeton University founded, 180 
Printing press, first in English 

colonies, 52 
Proctor, General, 194 
Progressive Party, 360 
Prohibition Party, 332 (fn.) 
Provincetown, first landing of the 

Pilgrims, 59 
Pure Food Acts, 362 (fn.) 
Puritan, emigration of, 41 et seq.; 

seK-government, 42 

Q 

Quakers, see Friends (Society of) 
Quebec, capture of, by Wolfe, 96 
Quincy, John, sketch of, 101 
Quincy, Josiah, declares right of 
secession, 199 



R 

Raih-oad, early, 262, 264; the 

"Underground," 241 
Raisin River, battle of, 192 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts 

settlement, 16, 19; sketch of, 16 
Randolph, Edmund, 160 
Ravenel, Daniel, sketch of, 105 
Reed, Thomas B., 338 
"Regulators" in North Carolina, 

116 (fn.) 
Rebellion, Bacon's, 78, 79; Dorr's, 

271; Shays's, 157; term used for 

War of Secession, 319 (fn.); the 

Whiskey, 164 
Reciprocity with Canada, 358 
Reconstruction, era of, 318-330 
Religion, differences ' in various 

colonies, 102 
Representative Assembly, the first 

in America, 28 
Repubhc, the, consohdated by 

war, 328 
Republican Party, origin of, 252; 

reconstruction pohcies of, 319 

et seq.; triumph of, in 1861, 262 



Resolutions, the Kentucky and 
Virginia, 172 

Revenue, providing for, 160, 161 

Revere, Paul, ride of, 121 

Rhode Island founded, 45; inde- 
pendent State, 165 (fn.) 

Ribault (Re-bo), fate of settle- 
ment, 85; settlement, 36, 69 

Rice, first cultivation of, 72 

Richmond, capital of Confederacy, 
283 

Richmond (Kentuckv), battle of, 
294 

Roanoke Island, fate of colony at, 
84, 85; first attempted Enghsh 
settlement, 17, 19 

Rolfe, John, cultivates tobacco, 
26; marries Pocahontas, 25 

Roosevelt, Theodore, becomes 
President, 351; elected Presi- 
dent, 353 ; in Spanish War, 347 ; 
nominated by Progressives, 360; 
sketch of, 351 

Rosecrans, General W. S., 295 et 
seq. 

Ross, General, death of, 190 

"Rough Riders," 347 

Rumsey, James, inventor of first 
steamboat, 178 

Russell, Dr. Walter, first physi- 
cian, 33 

Rutledge, John, 158 



Salem, settlement of, 42; witch- 
craft, 81 (fn.) 

Sampson, Admiral, 346 

Sandys, George, 34, 267 

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 28 

San Francisco, development of, 
245 ; site of, visited by Drake, 36 

San Jacinto, battle of, 233 

San Juan Hill stormed, 326 

San Salvador, 6 

Santa Anna, invasion of Texas, 
233 

Santa Maria, flagship of Colum- 
bus, 5 

Santa Maria II, 11 

Santiago surrenders, 348 



INDEX 



Santo Domingo, object of Monroe 
Doctrine, 355 

Saratoga, battle at, 138 

Savannah established, 73; seized 
by French and Americans, 144 
(fn.) 

Sayle, William, 69 

Schenectady, massacre at, 89 

Schley, Commodore, 348 

School, the first, 34 

Schuyler, General, in New York, 
137 

Scotch Covenanters in Carolina, 
69 (fn.) 

Scotch-Irish, emigration of, 97 

Scott, Dred, 253 

Scott, General Winfield, in Mexico 
235, 236; nominated for Presi- 
dent, 246 

Sea power in War of Secession, 
290 

Secession, alleged effort at, in 
Northeast, 184; in South and 
Lower South, 273; in Upper 
South, 282; Massachusetts legis- 
lature on, 276 ; sentiment for, in 
New England, 199; Webster on, 
276 (fnj; views of, in North, 
275-279; views of, in South, 
273-279 

Sectional jealousy, 184, 199-200, 
211; 239-242; 248-250 

Sectional struggle for territory, 
211, 239-242; 248-250 

Sedgwick, General John, 306 

Self-government, beginnings of, in 
America, 27; colonial, 100; in 
Maryland, 60; in North Caro- 
lina, 67; in Pennsylvania, 64; in 
relation to State rights, 165; in 
South Carohna, 71; with Pil- 
^ grims, 40; with Puritans, 42; 
views of Winthrop, Hooker, 
Hamilton, and Jefferson com- 
pared and contrasted, 48 (fn.) 
(see also 67 and fn.) 

Seminoles, Indians, 210, 229 (fn.) 

Serapis, the, 143 

Servants, negro indentured, 31, 32; 
white indentured, 31 



Settlement, Spanish, at Hayti, 6; 
St. Augustine, first Enghsh, 15, 
18,19 

Seven Days' battle, 300 

Seven Pines, battle of, 298 

Seward, William H., on Fort 
Sumter, 281; on Fugitive Slave 
Law, 241 

Seymour, Horatio, 322 

Sharpsburg, see Antietam 

Shepherdstown, 178 

Sheridan, General Philip H., in 
Valley of Virginia, 314; sketch 
of, 313; summoned to the East, 
312 

Sherman Anti-trust Law, 338 

Sherman, General W. T., cam- 
paigns in West, 295 et seq.; 
march to the sea, 310 

Sherman, James S., elected Vice- 
President, 356 

Shiloh, battle of, 293 

Silver Purchase Act, repeal of, 
229; the Sherman, 337 

Simms, WilHam Gilmore, 71 (fn.) 

Sioux uprising, 326 

Sitting Bull, 326 

Slavery, Indian, 49 

Slavery, negro, economic and 
political issue, 212; extension of, 
248, 254-256; in the South, 178, 
210, 270, 304, 323; origin from 
indentured service, 31, 32; 
prohibited by Constitutional 
amendment, 317; prohibited in 
Georgia, 73 

Slave trade, beginnings of, 49; 
end of, 178; expanded, 178 

Smith, Captain John, description 
of Pilgrims, 51; in Virginia, 22, 
23; names New England, 24; 
narrative of, 22; signature and 
sketch of, 23 

Smith, General E. Kirby, 294 

Smith, General Samuel, defence 
of Baltimore, 203; sketch of, 
196 

Smith, Gerrit, 258 

Socialist Party nominates candi- 
date for President, 357 (fn.) 

"Sons of Liberty," 128 



INDEX 



Sothel, Governor, 68 

South Carolina, beginnings of, 69, 

72; nullification in, 220-221; 

self-government in, 71 
South Mountain, battle of, 302 
Spain, discovery and conquest in 

America, 14, 15; with Portugal, 

claims all of New World, 9 
Spanish attack Georgia, 74; attack 

South Carolina, 71 
Speakership contest, 338 (fn.) 
"Spoils System" attacked, 333; 

established, 218 
Spottsylvania Court House, battle 

of, 313 
Squanto, Indian guide, 40 
St. Augustine, founding of, 15 
St. Clair, General, 165 
St. Mary's estabhshed, 59 
Stamp Act, 114; repeal of, 115 
Stamp Act Congress, 115 
Star of the West, the, 281 
"Star Spangled Banner," the, 197 

(fn.), 202 
Stark, Colonel, 137 
State claims, map of, 156 
State rights, as affected by war, 

329; asserted by Federalists, 

184; origin of, 155 
States, table of, Appendix E 
Stephens, Alexander H., opposes 

secession, 275 
Steuben, Baron von, sketch, 138 
Stevens, Thaddeus, 319 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 260 (see, 

also, 291 (fn.) ) 
Stuart, General J. E. B., 307 
Stuyvesant, Governor Peter, 54, 57 
Submarine, first successful, 327; 

the first, 152 
Suffrage, manhood, 216; woman, 

early instances of, 33, 337 
Sugar Act, 112 
Sumner, Charles, attacked by 

Brooks, 251 
Supreme Court, arbiter between 

States and Federal govern- 
ment, 173 (fn.); estabhshment 

of, 159 
Swedes in Northwest, 84; settle 

Delaware. 58 



Taft elected President, 356; re- 
nominated, 360; sketch of, 357 

Tariff as poUtical issue, 335, 339, 
343-344, 357, 360; as sectional 
issue, 205-207; British, 111, 112; 
for revenue, 161; of abomina- 
tions, 216; protective, advoca- 
ted by Calhoun, 204, 205, by 
Hamilton, 163, by Webster, 
216 

Tarleton at Cowpens, 147; in Vir- 
ginia, 148 

Tax, income, 357 

Taxation, British argument for, 
111; indirect, 161; proposed by 
Parliament, 112 

Taylor, Zachary, in Mexico, 234- 
236 

Tea Parties, 117, 118 

Tea Tax, the, 116; resistance to, 
117 

Tecumseh, death of, 194; story of, 
203 

Tennessee admitted to Union, 165; 
independent State, 65 (fn.) 

Tenure of Office Act, 320 

Texas, annexation of, 231-234; 
development of, 353 

Thames River, battle of, 194 

Thanksgiving, first celebration of, 
51 

Thomas, General George H., in 
western campaigns, 294 et seq.; 
sketch of, 294 

Thorpe, George, 33, 34 

Ticonderoga, Fort, 123 

Tilden, Samuel J., 326, 330 

Tilghman, Colonel Tench, 152 

Timby, T. R., inventor, 297 
(sketch) 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 191 (fn.) 

Titanic, sketch of and comparison, 
20 

Tobacco, cultivation at James- 
town, 26; introduced in Europe, 
19 

Topeka, constitution of, 250 

Tories, term defined, 126 (fn.) 

Toscanelli, Paul, 1, 3 



INDEX 



Townshend Acts, 116 

Townshend, Charles, 112 

Trade and travel in colonial times, 

103, 176, 179 
Trent affair, the, 290 
Trenton, battle of, 134 
Tripoli, war with, 181 
Trusts, regulation of, 338, 354, 

362 
Truxtun, Commodore, 171 (fn.) 
Tryon, Governor, in New York, 

128; in North Carolina, 116 

(fn.) 
Tuscarora Indians driven out of 

CaroHna, 68, 71 
Tyler, John, President, 231 ; sketch 

of, 231; Vice-President, 230 



U 

Underwood-Simmons Tariff Bill, 
361 

Union, colonial, 100, 119; in New 
England, 80; under Continen- 
tal Congress, 121 



Valley Forge, 136 

Van Buren, Martin, elected Presi- 
dent, 223; sketch of, 227; Vice- 
President, 220 

Venezuela dispute with Great 
Britain, 341 

Vera Cruz seized by United States, 
364 

Vermont admitted to Union, 165; 
independent State, 165 (fn.) 

Vespucci, Amerigo (Ah-ma-ree'-go 
Ves-poot'-chee), 8 

Vicksburg, capture of, 308 

Vincennes, capture of, 141, 142 

Virginia, cedes western claims, 156, 
157; naming of, 17 

Virginia, the first ironclad, 296 



W 

Waldseemuller (Wald-see-miill-er) , 

Martin, 7 (fn.) 
Wampanoag Indians, 40 



War of 1812, 191 et seq.; of 
Secession, begins, 282 et seq.; 
causes of, 283 et seq.; term 
of, 285 (fn.); the European, 
breaks out, 365 et seq.; with 
Spain, 345-348 

Washington, George, at Valley 
Forge, 175; early education, 106; 
elected President, 160; farewell 
address of, 170 (fn.); gives up 
commission, 150; in Constitu- 
tional Convention, 158; letter to 
R. H. Lee, 107; lessons from life 
of, 174-175; made Commander- 
in-Chief, 124; on Ohio River, 
92; saves remnants of Brad- 
dock's army, 95; surrenders to 
French, 94; surveyor, 92 (fn.) 

Washington City, capture of, 
195 

Wautauga settlements, 167 

Wayne, Anthony, defeats Indians, 
165; sketch of, 144 

Webster, Daniel, death of, 245; 
on nullification, 222 (fn.); on 
nullification and secession, 276 
(fn.); opposes tariff, 206; sketch 
of, 223 

Wells, David A., 331 

Wesley, John, missionary, 75 
(fn.) 

Wesleyan College (Georgia) estab- 
lished, 180 

West Virginia created, 287 

Wheeler, General Joseph E., 311; 
in Spanish War, 457 

Whipple, Commodore Abraham, 
151 

White, Governor John, drawing 
by, 17; sketch of, 33 

Whitefield (Whit-field), George, 75 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, 177 

Whittier, John G., on Webster, 
223 (fn.), 267 

Wilderness campaign, the, 312 

Wilham and Mary College, sketch 
of, 161 

Williams, Roger, estabhshes col- 
ony of Rhode Island, 45; 
preaches religious liberty, 44 



INDEX 



Williamsburg, 78, 79 (fn.); battle 
at, 298 

Wilson, WilUam L., 340 

Wilson, Woodrow, elected Presi- 
dent, 361 

Winchester, battle at, 299 

Winchester, General James, 192 

Winthrop, Governor John, views 
of, 43 

Winthrop, Margaret, signature 
and sketch of, 43 

Wood, Leonard, in Spanish War, 
347 



Wotton, Dr. Thomas, first sur- 
geon, 33 



X, Y, Z letters, 171 (fn.) 



Yale founded, 180 
Yamassees, war with, 71 
Yeardley, Sir George, 28 
Yorktown in War of Secession, 298; 
surrender of Cornwallis at, 149 



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